Tutor : Ms. Shahbazi
Chapter 10
Semantics
The study of the meaning of words, and is divided into two categories; 1- Denotation ( Conceptual ), 2-Connotation ( assosiative)
Semantics :
Semantics refers to the meaning of words, phrases, sentences , and in semantics analysis the meaning is important for us.We ignore grammatical structure and words have denotation and connotation meaning.
1-Denotation meaning : Is the first meaning of the word.The meaning which is written in a dictionary as the first meaning .
2-Connotation meaning : It is implied or hiden meaning of words.
For example : Home  a place to live ( denotation meaning ), comfort, ease, pleasure, (connotation meaning )
Semantics roles : Lexical related,
1-Antonyms : Two words have different meaning, classified in two groups;
1-a-gradable : fill  empty, high low,
1-b-non-gradable : present absent, pass fail, appear disappear,
Semantics roles :
Agent : a person who does an action.
Action : an activity which is done.
Theme : mostly the object has this role.
Source : It is where you get something and give to somebody.
Goal : It is the final destination.
Instrument : It can be tool.
Location : It refers to the place.
Note : If there is linking then the agent will be changed to experience.(see, seem, talk, am, is, are ). Example : Ali saw Robert. ( Ali=experience, Saw=action, Robert=theme )

- The boy kicked the ball. agent action theme
-The boy kicked the ball with an umbrella in the park. Agent action theme instrument location
-She borrowed a magazine from George and gave it to Ali. agent, action, theme source action goal
- He cuts his hair with a razor. agent action theme instrument
2-Synonyms : Two words have same meaning.
3-Hyponymy : In this relationship the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other words.It means that the relationship is between a general term and its specific items. For example : animal is a general term and horse, cats, snake, bird are co-hyponyms.
4-Homophony : Pairs that have the same pronounciation but different meanings and different spelling. For example : meet (ملاقات کردن ), meat( گوشت ) .
5-Homonyms : When two pairs have the same spelling but totally different unrelated meanings. For example : Bank ( of a river ), Bank ( financial organization ), Race ( speed ), Race ( match ), Pupil ( student ) Pupil ( in the eye ) مردمک چشم
6-Pollysemy : Two pairs that have same spelling but different meaning. Head of a person, Head of a company.
7-Metonymy : When we use something in place of another thing, For example instead of “president” we use “white house”, or instead of “car” we use “wheel”.
8-Collocation : Convention of two words that have the specific meanings. For example : sugar desease مرض قند, soft fruit میوه بدون هسته
Capter 11
-Pragmatics : The deepest meaning of a sentence, that it is when the speaker or writer tells something that you get is very important, it is called pragmatics.It means that you get the implied meaning of the text.
-Invisible meaning : In many ways pragmatics is the study of invisible meaning.It means that there's a very close relationship between pragmatics and invisible meaning.Both of them considered as the deep meaning of the text.
-Context : Something you get the meaning of the words by the help of linguistic context. For example : I went to the bank. I wanted to check my account ( deep meaning).In this example , there are many keys ( other words) which can help you to understand the meaning of the unfamiliar word which is “ bank”. sure that it is a bank, it is called physical context.
-Physical context : You are walking in the street, you see a building which is written “bank”,100% you are sure that it is a bank. It is called physical context.
-Deixis : Expression that can't be understood out of context.They are divided to 3 groups : a-person ( pronoun ), he, she, it, you b-special ( place ), She went there. c-temporal ( time ), I did it yesterday morning.
Antecedent, Amphora :
Mary goes to school.She speaks English. Antecedent Amphora
. Antecedentواسمی که منبع آن است می شود Amphoraضمیری که به اسمی برمی گردد
My mother study at home.She works in the kitchen. Antecedent Amphora
Presupposition :
می نامیم. Presupposition هر جمله ای را که می گوییم حقیقتی را در بردارد که آن حقیقت را
Did your brother arrived ? این حقیقت را در می یابیم که شما برادر دارید.
Speech acts : In his speech the speaker promises that he or she is going to do an action.Speech act can be divided to direct or indirect speech act.In the first one which is called direct speech act, structure and function are in agreement, but in the second which is indirect, there is no agreement between function and structure.
Structure, Functionتمامی جملات انگلیسی از دوبخش ذیل تشکیل شده اند:
Direct speech act  Structure function
Did you eat the pizza ? Interrogative Question پرسشی You ate the pizza ! Imperative Command امری You ate the pizza. Declarative Statement خبری
Indirect speech act :
Can you give the salt ? Interrogative پرسشی Command دستوری
Chapter 12
Discourse Analysis : Study of language in a text or in a conversation, it means that is the smallest unit of language, morphemes combine to make words, words combine to make sentences and sentences combine for expressing ideas and making the text.These large units are called discourse.Therefore we try to understand the meaning of text and conversations.In fact we take part in an activity which is called conversation.
Morpheme  It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
b) Analysis the text : -Cohesion : grammatical fitting together. -Coherence : every thing fitting together.
What are the characteristics of the text ? 1-Cohesion, 2-Coherence
Cohesion : The connection between different parts of a sentence in a paragraphs.It means that there should be a close connection among different sentences.
What is the differences between cohesion and coherence ? -Cohesion : Means unit or togetherness. It means that there should be a close relationship among all the elements in the text, for example there should be a close connection among connectors.( cohesion focus on grammar).
-Coherence : Means consistency. It means that all the sentences should be related to each other. It is your task to omit all irrelevant sentences.
Speech event : We study the language in a text or in a conversation.
The elements of a conversation : When we want to teach a conversation to a person , we should use of these terms :
A) Physical context : Where does they can take place.
Number of people that take part in a conversation.
C) Familiar or unfamiliar, for example “Mina” is familiar but “old man” is unfamiliar.
D) Stop , Pause: It means that when one participant speaks,the other one should be silent or vise versa.
E) Turn-taking : At first is your turn and after that is my turn.
The co-operative principle :
1-Quantity : It means that the conversation should be meaningful.
2-Quality : There are three kinds of conversation; Lexical or semantic, cultural, Grammatical. A) Grammatical : It means that it wants to teach you a grammatical point. Semantic or lexical : It wants to teach you the meaning of words or expression. C) Cultural conversation : They wants to make you familiar with the culture of another country.
3-Relation : Means consistency.
4-Manner : It means that should be brief and to the point. ( should be short ).
{ a-quantity  informative, b-quality  to the point, c-relation  be relevant, d-manner  short, brief }
Hedge : If you are not sure about something, it is better to add some expressions. For example : Correct me, if I am wrong. - As far as I know. - I am not absolutely sure.
Implicature : it is additional conveyed meaning.
وقتی سوالی می پرسیم , بدونyes وno جوابی داده میشود که ما منظور گوینده رابرداشت می کنیم ( توضیح اضافه ) به آن برداشت ما implicature گفته میشود.مثال:
Are you coming to the party?
I have got an exam tomorrow.
Background knowledge= Pre-existing knowledge : It,s your pre-existing knowledge, it means that when you read or hear something, you start to activate your background knowledge.The reality is that the more pre-existing knowledge you have, better you can understand the text, another name for background knowledge is “Schema”. “John was on his way to school last friday”. It does not mention that John is a student but by referring to your background knowledge about school in the sentence you can understand that John is a student.
Chapter 13
Language and Brain
Neurolinguistic : It's study of the relationship between language and brain.It means that there is a very close relationship between brain and ability to produce speech.
Brain's parts : 1-Right hemisphere, 2-left hemisphere,
-Right hemisphere  1-Broca's area, 2-Wernicke's area, 3-The motor cortex, 4-The arcuate fasciculus.
Broca's area : a-This part of the brain is related to the ability for producing speech. b-Any damage to this particular area of brain is related to difficulty in producing speech.
Wernicke,s area : a-This area helps us in comprehending speech. b-Any damage to this particular area will cause difficulty in comprehending speech.( It means inability to comprehend or understand)
Motor cortex : a-It controls the movement of some muscles, for example muscles of face and tongue. b-Any damage to this particular area will cause some problems in movement of muscles.
Arcuate fasciculus : a-it is a connection between broca,s and wernicke,s area.
b-Any damage to this particular area will cause some major problems in producing speech or understanding.
Localization of view : It means that different human abilities and behaviors are related to different parts of brain.
Tip of the tongue : This is the speech error which is related to some problem in the brain, it means that when the speaker wants to produce some words or expressions, can not produce them because of inability to memorize, also he is aware of number of letters, sylabes, but he/she is not able to memorize them. Malapropism is another name for tip of tongue.
Slip of tongue : It is an error which is related to the brain and means inability to to produce tangled expression , for example when the speaker wants to say a long short story, he / she says a long shory stort, or sometimes he says use the door to open the key. Another name which is a verbal error spoonerism which means producing tangled expression reversal, the root of this problem can be distraction, fear, alcoholic drink, tiredness.
Aphasia : It means inability to produce and understand linguistic forms, it means that these people are not able to produce or understand speech. 1-Broca,s Aphasia : a-this problem is related to Broca,s area. b-it means inability to use correct grammatical structures. The speaker uses lexical morphemes ( noun, verbs) and no to use functional morphemes like article and prepositions. For example :  yes…ah…today…my brother…I school, I home.
2-Wernicke,s Aphasia : a-This type of damage is related to Wernicke,s area. b-Someone who suffers from this problem can produce fluent speech, but the sentences that are produced, are meaningless. For example : I can not talk all of the things I do and I part of the part I can go all right.But I can not tell from the other people.
Conduction Aphasia : A)This problem is related to arcuate fasciculus. B)There are many pauses when they speak and what is heard and understood by these people can not be transferred to the speech production area. For this reason they are not able to repeat some words and expression.
What is Dichotic listening ? This activity is related to your ears, it means that you can recognize sounds by the help of right or left hemisphere whatever happens in the right is is organized by left hemisphere and whatever happens in the left is organized by the right hemisphere. The fact is that language production is related to the left hemisphere. For example if you hear the same word from your right and left ear, the word that you hear from your right ear goes to the left hemisphere and the word that you hear from your left ear go to the right hemisphere and then it turn to the left hemisphere.
What is the critical period ? It means that there is a time when human brain is ready to receive and learn a particular language . This time is referred to the critical period if a child does not learn language during this time, then he or she will have some problems in producing the next stages.
Chapter 14
First language Acquisition
Innate predisposition ? It is related to internal talent, it means that all human infants have capability for learning language and it can be regarded to the internal talent.( naturally humans are able to produce language).
What are the most important elements in the critical periods ?
1-Interaction: it means that relationship or communication between parents and children in the first style of childhood is very important.
2-Enivironment: It means that the child is able to learn language in a positive environment. The environment that the child is raised, is very important.
-What is the care giver speed ?
Parents, adults and grandparents a lot of time interacting with young children. They use a style which is called caretaker, these people use exaggerated intonation simplified words, and some simple items which is called child direct speech.
-What are the different stages for language production ?
- until 5 month  cooing - 6 ~ 8 month  babbling -12 ~ 18 months  one word stage -18 ~ 20 months  the two words stage  more than 50 words - 2 ~ 2.5 year  multiple words
1-Cooing and babbling sounds : Children try to produce some sounds in the early stages of their children. The sounds like [ k] [ I: ] [ I ] [ u ] , after that by six months the child is able to produce some different vowels and complex combination.( they can produce two vowels and two consonance ; [ I ] و [ u ] , [ k ] و [ g ] )
2-The one word stage : The other name for this stage is holophrastic. It means that a single word is produced by a child which will function as a phrase or sentence, but during these time the child is not able to put the forms together and produce a more complicated phrase.
3-The two word stage : In this stage the child's vocabulary move beyond fifty words. For example: when the baby says baby chair, it may have different meanings. It can refer to the: 1, baby chair ( the baby wants to say that chair is mine ). 2, the child may have a request ( he / she wants to say put me in a chair. )

Cooing and babbling : -One-word stage, -Two-word stage -Telegraphic speech 1-Inflectional, 2-Preposition -The acquisition process  adult,s speech - Developing morphology  overgeneralization ( ing, past, s, sdo  does, have )
4.Telegraphic Speech : The child in this stage is between two and three years old and is able to produce some grammatical structure. They use inflectional morphemes, prepositions and generally they have a good pronunciation like an adult.
5.The acquisition process : In this stage the child is taught the language.
6.Developing morphology : In this stage overgeneralization is very important. It means that he or she tries to overgeneralize what he / she learns. For example : after learning “ed” for past, he / she tries to use “ed” for different structures. ( ing, ' , pasted, s( plural), s  do does, have ) .
7.Forming question : In this stage children add “who” to the begging of some expressions. For example where horses go ? Where Marry? they are able to produce more complex structures like ; “ why you smiling ? “ and after that they use correct grammatical structures like ; “ will you help me ?“ “ Did I caught it ? “
8.Forming negatives : The baby use negative forms like, can not, do not
9.First year : Children in this stage develop the sound system of language by producing many sounds.
10.Second year : In this stage they try to develop their phonological system of language.
What is the meaning of overextension ? It means that child starts to imitate the sound of some animal like cow, dog, etc.
Chapter 15
Learning and acquisition
-What is the difference between learning and acquisition ?
Learning should be in an academic place and there should be an instruction and students learn vocabulary, grammar and different structures in an institutional context, but acquisition means step by step development and sometimes is not any instruction in an academic place.
-Second and foreign language : If you learn English language in Iran which there is no second language the language that you learn for example English or French is foreign language , but if you learn English in a country like India which second language of people is English, the language that you learn is second language.

Acquisition barriers :
1-When people want to learn a language they have some problems, it means that learning a second language for some people is easy, but for the others is very difficult. For example learning second language for an adult in a foreign language context is much more difficult than a child, because an adult knows his first language completely, but a child doesn't know his first language.
2-We are not native and in learning second language there are some pronunciation, grammatical and semantic problems.
Motivation:
Motivation  It can be Internal or External.
1-Internal , It means that naturally you want to learn English, for example : you are interested in English and you want to study it in spite of having many problems.
2-External, An external element forces or motivates you to learn English, for example :Ali want to get marry and he goes to English class for Maryam.
And it can be Instrumental and Intogrative.
1-Instrumental, A learner wants to learn language in order to achieve something else, for example you learn English for passing a test or getting a good job.
2-Interogative : It means that you want to learn English in order to become a part of community and to be accepted as a member a community.
What is a generalization error ?
If a learner learns a structure and repeats this structure incorrectly , it is called generalization error, for example after learning plural “S” she/ he adds “S” to all nouns like the use of “womens” instead of “women“.
By : A. Mohammadi
Z.Yari