1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern organizational setting is characterized by constant changing relation to environmental factors
and human resources. As regard to the environmental factors, we find changes in the operating
organizational structure, the network of the working procedures, customs on norms and the economic,
political and the social patterns in which organizations exist. Moreover, there is a constant
change in human resources, the individuals are employed daily with new creativity, ideas and
experiences, while the existing workforce is also continuously changing their ideas, attitudes and even
values. These two dimensions reveal the following trends.
Σ Increased complexity of the organizations, employment and a clear hierarchy of owners,
managers and workers.
Σ Increased the number of employers, self-employed and enlarged size of workforce.
Σ Enhance the need of training in view of increased requirements of specialized skills.
Σ Public interventions and legal complications in employee and employer relationships.
Σ Enhanced training and development of managers and professionalisation of management education.
Σ Possibility of employment explosion in view of ever increasing size of workforce.
Σ Rising the formal level of education of rank and file employees who becoming increasingly
critical of management malpractice and errors.
Σ Rank and file employees rapidly growing demands in different employment situations.
Σ Recognizing of close relationships between profits and earnings and ability to manage human
resources.
Indeed these trends manifest themselves in problem areas as identified by the managers in organizational
settings. Although the change may provide solutions to some problems, it may create several
1 C H A P T E R
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT:
CONTEXT, CONCEPT AND BOUNDARIES
2
new ones. There is an urgent need to understand these problems, anticipate them and to find solution
to them. The responsibility to find out the solutions to these problems lies with every manager who
has prepared to deal with different change effectively through educational and developmental
programs. Obviously, every manager is responsible for management of human resources of course
with the advice and help of personnel department. Management of human resources is the essence of
being manager who has to get things done through the people without whom he can be a technician
but not a manager. Thus, every manager has to develop and maintain his competency in managing
human resources, which have assumed utmost significance in modern organizations.
1.2 HUMAN FACTOR AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
The macroeconomic and management issues facing the Indian economy are the removal of the twin
evils of employment and poverty. How to remove these twin evils and more important, promote
optimum utilization of human capacities would be a major concern of not only the State but also
Indian business and management. In addition, the following major macro and micro issues pose the
serious problems to management and it is time that Indian business and management face the
challenges of these issues and make a contribution in solving these issues.
The macro and micro issues:
Σ Capacity utilization-machine as well as human.
Σ Combating the inflation and holding the price line.
Σ Population problem.
Σ Motivation, involvement and consultation.
Σ Meeting basic physiological and other needs.
Σ Reducing the absenteeism, accidents, loss and damage.
Σ Generating employment opportunities, almost to the level of full employment.
Σ Human assets accounting, profits and growth.
Σ Eliminating strikes and lockouts through voluntary measures.
Σ Job redesigning, enlargement, enrichment.
Σ Promoting the health, self-renewal and creativity.
Σ Promoting exports and economic growth.
Σ Conservation of resources (renewal and non-renewal.)
Σ Increase the productivity of finance.
Σ Waste and cost reduction.
Σ Promoting the arts and culture, religion, sports, leisure activities.
Σ Adoption of village and communities.
Σ Promoting entrepreneurship, barefoot entrepreneurs and managers.
Σ Eliminating discrimination of all types.
Σ Promoting a sense of national identity, awareness and contribution.
Σ Promoting industrial and national security.
Σ Eliminating poverty completely.
Σ Improving the quality of working life.
Σ Improving the quality of life.
3
The human resources (total sum of knowledge, skills, creative abilities, talents and attitudes obtained
in the population: National point of view) have also been designed a human factors. According to
Michael J. Jucious, “human factor refers to a whole consisting of inter-related, interdependent and
interacting physiological, psychological, social, and ethical components”. It has physiological needs
(food, rest, environmental conditions, security etc.), psychological needs (autonomy, achievement,
power, acquisitiveness) social needs (affiliation, status, approval, prestige etc.) and it has an ethical
creature, it has concepts of right and working. It tends to do what it thinks right. Obviously, the human
factor is dynamic in nature as is revealed in motivation and defense mechanism. It is the on going
process involving the four sub-processes.
The human resources are assuming increasing significance in modern organizations. Obviously,
majority of the problem in organizational setting are human and social rather than physical, technical
or economic. The failure to recognize this fact causes immense loss to the nation, enterprise and the
individual. It is a truism that productivity is associated markedly with the nature of human resources
and their total environment consisting of interrelated, interdependent and interacting economic and
non-economic (political, religious, cultural, sociological and psychological) factors. Thus, the
significance of human resources can be examined from time to time.
1.3 DEFINITION OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
!
"#
$
$
"#
"#
$
$
Human resources management can be defined as that part of management concerned with:
Σ All the decisions, strategies, factors, principles, operations, practices, functions, activities and
methods related to the management of people as employees in any type of organization.
Σ All the dimensions related to people in their employment relationships, and all the dynamics
that flow from it; and
Σ Adding value to the delivery of goods and services and to the quality of work life for employees,
hereby helping to ensure continuous organizational success in transformative environments
(www.hrsgb.org.za/HR_scope_and_definition.html).
Human Resource Management (HRM) is a process of bringing people and organizations together
so that the goals of each are met. It is part of the management process which is concerned with the
management of human resources in an organization. It tries to secure the best from people by winning
their wholehearted cooperation. In short, it may be defined as the art of procuring, developing and
maintaining competent workforce to achieve the goals of an organization in an effective and efficient
4
manner. According to the Invancevich and Glueck, “HRM is concerned with the most effective use of
people to achieve organizational and individual goals. It is the way of managing people at work, so
that they give their best to the organization”.
1.4 A NEW MANDATE FOR HUMAN RESOURCES
Human resources have never been more necessary. The competitive forces that we face today and will
continue to face in the future demand organizational excellence. To achieve this excellence by
focusing on learning, quality, teamwork, and reengineering are driven by the way organizations get
things done and how employees are treated. To achieve this excellence we look at the work of Human
resources. By designing an entirely new role and agenda that results in enriching the organization’s
value to customers, investors and employees, HR can help deliver organizational excellence by
helping line managers and seniors move planning from the conference room to the market place, by
becoming an expert in the way work is organized and executed, they should be a representative for the
employees and finally by helping the organization improve their capacity for change. The responsibility
for transforming the role of HR belongs to the CEO and to every line manager. HR will help
organizations meet competitive challenges such as globalization, profitability through growth, technology,
intellectual capital, and the greatest competitive challenge companies face, adjusting to
nonstop change. HR’s new role would be able to quickly turn strategy into action; to manage
processes intelligently and efficiently; to maximize employee contribution and commitment; and to
create the conditions for seamless change. HR should also become a partner in strategy executions by
impelling and guiding serious discussions of how the company should be organized to carry out its
strategy. Creating the conditions for this discussion involves four steps. First HR would define an
organizational architecture by identifying the company’s way of doing business. Next HR must be
accountable for conducting an organizational audit. The third role for HR as a strategic partner is to
identify methods for renovating the parts of the organizational architecture that need it. Fourth and
finally, HR must take stock of its own work and set clear priorities. In their new role as administrative
experts they will need to shed their traditional image and still make sure all routine work for the
company is done well. HR must be held accountable for ensuring that employees feel committed to
the organization and contribute fully. They must take responsibility for orienting and training line
management about the importance of high employee morale and how to achieve it. The new HR
should be the voice of employees in management discussions. The new role for HR might also involve
suggesting that more teams be used on some projects or that employees be given more control over
their own work schedules.
The new HR must become a change agent, which is building the organization’s capacity to embrace
and capitalize on change. They don’t execute change but they make sure it is carried out. The new
mandate for HR requires dramatic change in how HR professionals think and behave. Investing in
new HR practices is another way to let the organization know that HR is worthy of the company’s
money and attention. Finally, the most important thing managers can do to drive the new mandate for
HR is to improve the quality of the HR staff itself. Senior executives must get beyond the stereotypes
of HR professionals as incompetent support staff and unleash HR’s full potential.
The new role for HR is evident at the company I work for. They are present at any team or
company meeting to make sure any issues the employees have are taken care of. They are the voice of
the employees. They are responsible for training the line managers in keeping up the morale of the
5
employees. They take care of any changes that need to be made and we have changes every 6 months.
Whether in scheduling or seating arrangements, they are there to help. Often the HR department
where I work is very involved in aspects of everyday operations, that, traditionally, Human resources
never involved themselves in. Specifically, HR and upper management hold training seminars on a
regular basis for the middle management team. They discuss ways to improve employee attitudes and
performance. They are very active in our daily operations and employees know that while HR is a tool
of the company, they do serve the employees as well. We also hold sensing sessions, which gives the
employees an opportunity to address concerns about the company and about personnel issues. Human
resource management would also be to guide staff with their career path and researching certain
courses and learning institutes best suited to their work to develop all the necessary skills to achieve
high results in the workplace. Encouragement is a big factor in job training and career courses to
stimulate staff in their current role or to further their career options within the company. With today’s
workforce becoming increasingly diverse and organizations doing more to maximize the benefits of
the differences in employees. Human resource managers are evolving from the “old school” sideline
player to the front-line fighters. Personally, every time I have had questions about my future in the
company, HR was there to provide answers and guidance to me so that I better understood my full
potential. I now understand, the amount of work the HR department has. It’s not just the payroll.
1.5 CHANGING ROLE OF THE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The times have changed and the role of human resources within the organization needs to change. We
can no longer be keepers of the records; we must become keepers of the flame. It is human resources’
responsibility to lead the organization in tapping the one remaining resource it has people. In today’s
global economy, everyone can have the latest computers and software. They can have identical
products. What they cannot have are the same people. Each organization is made up of a unique group
of people. It becomes the responsibility of human resources to mesh the people with varying
backgrounds with its vision and goals to create a merger that will accomplish the objectives of both
the organization and the individual. Management needs to realize that in the future, raw materials,
finished products and money will not be the keys to organizational success. People will be that key.
Future success will depend on how we use the things that do not appear on a balance sheet or a Profit
and Loss Statement, the intellectual capital of the organization, the knowledge its people possess. A
recent study of U.S. businesses showed that the best way to improve goods and services and become
more competitive.
There has been considerable research on the issues of board-level representation by personnel/HR
directors and senior HR managers’ involvement in strategic decision-making. Since the early 1990s
there has been a growing interest in international HRM, reflecting the growing recognition that the
effective management of human resources internationally is a major determinant of success or failure
in international business. There is also evidence that HR constraints often limit the effective implementation
of international business strategies. More recently, it has been argued that the more rapid
pace of internationalization and globalization leads to a more strategic role for HRM as well as
changes in the content of HRM. Yet, while there have been some attempts to integrate international
corporate strategy and human resource strategy, surprisingly, the role of the corporate human
resources function has been neglected, particularly in the context of the international firm. This seeks
to redress the balance. The question addressed is, what is the role of the corporate HR function in the
6
international firm? We found an emerging agenda for corporate HR in international firms which
focuses on senior management development, succession planning and developing a cadre of international
managers. We conceptualize this as a strategic concern with developing the core management
competences of the organization, and argue that it can be usefully analyzed from the perspective of
the learning organization.
“The point is the difference in attention to each persons can maximize his or her potential, so that
organizations can maximize their effectiveness and so that the society as a whole can make the wisest
use of its human resources” (Cascio). The challenges of HR managers today is to recognize talent and
nurture the same carefully and achieve significant productivity gains over period of time. The
organization is nothing but people. Technological advances globalize competition, demographic
changes, the information revolution and trends towards service society have changed the rules of the
game significantly. “In this scenario, organizations with similar set of resources gain competitive
advantage only through effective and efficient management of human resources” (Dessler). The role
of HR manager is shifting from a protector and screener to the planner and change agent. In present
day competitive world, highly trained and committed employees are often a firm’s best bet. HR
managers plays an important role in planning and implementing down sizing, restructuring and other
cost-cutting activities. They make the organization into more responsive to innovations and technological
changes. Employees are the assets of corporate success. HR professionals can help the
organization in selecting and train the employees for any emerging situations and promote commitments
of all employees at various levels. In this case the employees can work willingly and enthusiastically
and thus a competitive advantage to the organization. Now, employees are seen as the sources
of competitive advantages.
A companies human resources represents one of the most potent and valuable resources. Consequently,
the extent to which a workforce is managed effectively is a critical element in improving and
sustaining organizational performance. Managing people is one of the most difficult aspects of
organizational management; it means dealing with people who differ physically and psychologically.
Human Resources Management emerged as a practiced personnel function, promising flexibility, and
responsiveness and marked increased in the value of the employee. The organizational context in
which the human resources management finds itself currently is one of the rapid change and
considerable uncertainty. Human resources management is also in the process of change with regard
to the nature of the role performed. In the past, human resources management professionals performed
many functions themselves. The role they are taking on now is one of consultant to line
managers, where line managers perform many functions traditionally handled by human resources
management professionals. Similarly, the trend is for business to shed all functions not directly
related to core business.
The changes surrounding us are not mere trends but the working of large, unruly forces,
globalization, which has opened enormous new markets and a necessary corollary, enormous numbers
of new competitors; the spread of information technology and the growth of networks; the dismantling
of the corporate hierarchy and the politically charged down sizing and job disruption that
accompany it.
The new economy is moving away from being asset-intensive towards becoming more knowledgeintensive.
The focus is thus moving from providing product to providing services. As most organizations
have access to the Internet and the latest technology, the people within the organization provide
the competitive advantage, not the product or the technology. In the new economy, people are an
7
organizations greatest asset. It is the role of human resource management and the human resource
professional to nurture this asset. The new sources of sustainable competitive advantage in the new
economy have the people at the center-creativity and talent, their aspirations and hopes, their dreams
and excitement. The companies that flourish in this decade will do so because they are able to provide
meaning and purpose, a context and frame that encourage individual potential to flourish and grow.
Thus human resources management has an important and essential role to play in organizations in the
new economy. To fulfill this role, organizations will needs to evaluate their existing human resources
functions and adapt them to suit the needs of the new economy and individuals working in organizations
in the new economy.
1.6 MANAGING HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE EMERGING SCENARIO
“People are our greatest asset” is a mantra that companies have been chanting for years. But only a
few companies have started putting Human Resources Management (HRM) systems in place that
support this philosophy. There are a number of challenges in the Indian IT industry which require the
serious attention of HR managers to ‘find the right candidate’ and build a ‘conducive work environment’
which will be beneficial for the employees, as well as the organization. The IT industry is
already under stress on account of persistent problems such as attrition, confidentiality, and loyalty.
Other problems are managing people, motivation to adopt new technology changes, recruitment and
training, performance management, development, and compensation management. With these challenges,
it is timely for organizations to rethink the ways they manage their people. Managing HR in
the knowledge based industry is a significant challenge for HR managers as it involves a multi-task
responsibility. In the present scenario, HR managers perform a variety of responsibilities. Earlier
their role was confined to administrative functions like managing manpower requirements and
maintaining rolls for the organisation. Now it is more strategic as per the demands of the industry.
Managing People
In view of the industry dynamics, in the current times, there is a greater demand for knowledge
workers. Resumes abound, yet companies still fervently search for the people who can make a
difference to the business. Often talented professionals enjoy high bargaining power due to their
knowledge and skills in hand. The attitude is different for those who are taking up responsibilities at
a lesser age and experience. These factors have resulted in the clear shift in approach to individualised
career management from organisation career commitment.
Motivating the Workforce
As the competition is growing rapidly in the global IT market, a technological edge supported by a
talent pool has become a crucial factor for survival in the market. Naturally, as a result every
organisation gives top priority to technology advancement programs. HR managers are now performing
the role of motivators for their knowledge workers to adopt new changes.
Competency Development
Human capital is the real asset for any organisation, and this makes the HR role important in recruiting,
managing, and retaining the best. The HR department has a clear role in this process and determines the
8
success tempo of any organisation. An urgent priority for most of the organisations is to have an
innovative and competent HR pool; sound in HR management practices with strong business knowledge.
Recruitment and Training
Recruitment has become a major function from an imperative sub-system in HR, particularly in the
IT industry. HR managers play a vital role in creating assets for the organisation in the form of quality
manpower. Attracting new talent also is a top priority for software companies, but less so for smaller
companies. Another challenge for HR managers is to put systems in place to make the people a perfect
fit for the job. Skill redundancy is fast in the IT industry. To overcome this problem, organisations
give the utmost priority to training and skill enhancement programs on a continuous basis. Many IT
companies are providing technical training to the employees on a quarterly basis. These trainings are
quite useful also in terms of providing security to the employees.
The Trust Factor
Low levels of trust inhibit tacit knowledge sharing in the knowledge based industry. It is essential that
the IT industry takes more initiatives to improve the security levels of the employees.
Work Life Balance Factor
Another dimension to the challenges faced by IT Industry is the growing pace of talent acquisition.
This aspect creates with it the challenge of a smoother assimilation and the cultural binding of the new
comers into the organization fold. The pressure of delivering the best of quality services in a reduced
time frame calls for ensuring that employees maintain a work life balance.
Attrition/Retention of the Talent Pool
One of the toughest challenges for the HR managers in the IT industry is to deal with the prevalent
high attrition levels. Though there is an adequate supply of qualified staff at entry level, there are
huge gaps in the middle and senior level management in the industry. Further, the salary growth plan
for each employee is not well defined. This situation has resulted in increased levels of poaching and
attrition between organisations. The industry average attrition rate is 30–35 per cent and could range
up to 60 per cent.
Bridging the Demand Supply Gap
HR managers have to bridge the gap between the demand and supply of professionals. They have to
maintain consistency in performance and have to keep the motivation levels of employees high,
despite the monotonous nature of work. The same also leads to recurring training costs. Inconsistent
performance directly affects revenues. Dwindling motivation levels lead to a loss of interest in the job
and a higher number of errors.
In India, about the current challenges in the industry and the retention initiatives in their companies.
More executives were surveyed expressed that the major challenges for the HR managers are
recruiting the right people and retaining them for longer times. The next most important HR concerns
listed were meeting the demand, supply requirements in the industry, expectations management of the
resources and other stakeholders, efficiency in processes and HR policies. When asked to rank the best
9
motivating factors, the most frequently expressed priority was the nature of the job and job satisfaction.
The next most important aspects were salary and monetary benefits, good peer group, positive,
motivating and interactive environment and company processes. More interestingly, working for the
right boss and company was very appealing to the authors.
The motivating factors and retention initiatives taken by different companies were very thought
provoking. The most frequently mentioned initiatives were those related to salary and monetary
benefits. Good salaries, increments, performance based pay, and ESOPs are some of the aspects
mentioned. Transparency in the system was another major point mentioned by the employees. The
requirement for recognizing loyalty to the company and hard work was highlighted. Flexible work
culture and freedom to shift to a more interesting work area were some of the other aspects. The Vice
President of an MNC mentioned ‘expectations matching using the Key Responsibility Areas (KRAs)’
was one of the major retention initiatives in his company.
When asked for the major reasons for attrition in the industry, the response was diverse. Indeed,
there were a breadth of responses with more emphasis on the monetary aspects, nature of job and
administrative policies. Those surveyed felt that the high demand in the industry is augmenting job
hopping. Also, the wide difference in the salaries offered by the companies is another reason for staff
mobility. Some of the other reasons mentioned were lack of expectations management, counseling
and mentoring, lack of professionalism in immediate supervisor as well as head of the relevant
department or group, and lack of differentiation between performers and non-performers. One of the
senior managers in HR opined that the current supply of ready to use manpower is lower than the
demand, and the lead time in getting productive people is a major limitation in recruitment, which in
turn leads to more attrition. Another reason mentioned was bad HR/organizational values and lack of
ethics.
The Indian industries are facing considerable challenges. In order to maintain India’s competitive
advantage of technically skilled knowledge workers with the right mix of technical, business and
functional skills, the workforce needs to increase by at least 10 fold to 2.2 million knowledge workers
by 2008 (Nasscom 2003a). To cope with such complexities, HRM strategy must have at its centre a
focus on peoples needs and requirements. The IT industry, like any other service industry, is people
driven. At present, the emphasis should be more on improving the personalities and processes and
help each individual come out as a winner. HR managers have to continuously evolve career paths,
motivate their employees and create a culture of oneness, which will also act as retention tools. Since
the recurring recruitment costs are detrimental, it is requisite that great emphasis is to be levied on
starting specialised training institutes to guide employees to identify the right people at the right time
who can keep pace with the unique work patterns in this industry. The managers should take more
initiatives to improve employee retention by taking suitable initiatives. However, it is also to be
understood that staff turnover is as unpredictable as technological uncertainty. However, with suitable
HR strategies the measures of the attrition percentage could be kept low giving addition organizational
benefit and in turn, to the outsourcing advantage.
The 21st century would see the following inter-related phenomena emerging, posing challenges to
the corporate world and culminating in Olympian competition.
Σ Borderless world
Σ Diversity
Σ Knowledge power.
10
The cross-cultural, cross-border mingling has resulted in the creation of a new class of people,
global citizens with global attitudes, taste and networks. Since it unleashes multiple variables, the
borderless world precludes immense complexity, complexity in the environment, in inter-organizational
relationships, in the modes of conducting business and in socio-cultural diversity. One of the
most important duties of the modern HR manager is to get things done through people. He has to
bring employees into contact with the organization in such a way that the objectives of both groups
are achieved. He must be interested in people, the work and the achievement of assigned objectives.
To be effective, he must balance his concern for people and work. In other words he must know how
to utilize human as well as non-human resources while translating goals into action.
1.7 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES: AN INDIAN
1.7 PERSPECTIVE
Kautilya’s Period: Kautilya provides a systematic treatment of management of human resources as
early as in the 4th Century B.C. in his treatise titled ‘Arthashastra’.
Σ There prevailed logical procedures and principles in respect of labour organizations such as
‘Shreni’ or Guild system and the cooperative sector.
Σ The wages were paid strictly in terms of quantity and quality of work turned out, and punishments
were imposed for unnecessary delaying the work or spoiling it.
Σ Kautilya provides an excellent discussion on staffing and personnel management embracing job
descriptions, qualifications for job, selection procedure, and executive development, incentive
systems (Carrot and Stick approach).
Varnasharm: There are several indications regarding the operations of principles of the divisions of
labour. The concept of Varnashram or caste system was originally based on these principles:
Σ The individuals, who used to earn their livelihood by engaging themselves in activities such as
teaching, sacrifice or state management, were designed as Brahmins.
Σ Individuals engaged in the areas of trade, business and agriculture were called ‘Vaishyas’ and
those devoting themselves to manual work were known as ‘Shudras’. Later on, these professions
emerged to be heredity which facilitated the transfer of skills and training from one
generation to another.
The Medieval: (As regard to Indian Economy in Medieval India):
Although there were a lull because of numerous foreign aggressions for around 700 years, during
the Mughal Rule, the Indian trade and commerce were reviewed.
Σ Several ‘Karkhanas’ were established at Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Ahmedabad and various other
places.
Σ A majority of the artisans and the craftsmen had extremely poor conditions of existences and
lived on starvation level.
Σ The productivity of workers was very low, low wages, climatic conditions and poor physique
were the major factors responsible for it.
British Period: There prevailed laissez-faire policy towards business.
Σ As it is evidenced in the report of the Indigo Commission, the working conditions were
appalling, living conditions were subhuman, and several abuses prevailed in Indigo plantations.
11
Again, as regards tea plantation, several cases of inhuman cruelties caused to the workers are
encountered.
Σ Even the Plantation Act of 1863 makes provisions that if the workers failed to complete their
period of contract, they should be imprisoned for a period not exceeding three months.
Σ The labourers who attempted to run away were subjected to imprisonment whipping and allied
extreme punishments.
Σ Accordingly, the workers were entirely helpless in the face of organized and powerful European
Planters.
The above conditions prevailed till the enactment of the Factory Act of 1881. According to the
Act; the workers employed in the factories were allowed a weekly off day, and provisions were also
made for inspection as well as limiting the hours of work for women workers to 11 per day. The Act
further provided that the minimum age of children for employment should be seven years and that the
maximum working hours for them should not exceed seven hours a day and that too in the day shift.
In 1890, the first labour organization designated as ‘Bombay Mill Hands Association’ was established.
Subsequently, in 1905, the Printers Union at Calcutta and in 1907, the Postal Union at
Bombay were established. The Madras Labour Union was organized thereafter in 1918. In 1920, the
indentured labour system involving migration of Indian labour to other countries on contract basis,
was abolished as a result of a strong national movement. In the same year, the Central Labour Board
was established to federate the different unions in the Bombay city and the All India Trade Union
Congress was organized.
In 1923, for the first time in the organized sector, Tata Steel appointed K.A. Naoroji as a labour or
welfare officer to look after labour issues in the various departments of the steel work. The formal
implementation of the Indian Trade Union Act, 1926 forms a landmark in the history of industrial
relations in this country. The Royal Commission on Labour (1929–1931) recommended the appointment
of labour officers or liaison officers to deal with recruitment as measures to prevent corrupt
practices in Indian industry. They were considered a recruitment officers directly reporting to general
manager. As the commission observed, ‘No employee should be engaged except by the labour officer
personally in consultation with the departmental head, and none should be dismissed without his
consent except by the manager after hearing what the labour officer had to say’ accordingly, the
Bombay Mill Owners Association and the Indian Jute Mills Association appointed labour officers in
1935 and 1938, respectively. During World War II, the need for mobilizing labour support was felt
and thus, several welfare officers were appointed to deal with working conditions, canteen, ration
shops, recreations, medical facilities, worker’s housing and allied fringe benefits.
Post-Independence Period: With the emergence of compulsory adjudication under the Industrial
Disputes Act, 1947, the welfare officers were made responsible for handling the disputes and
adjudication pertaining to the conditions of services including wages, leaves, retirement benefits and
bonus. Thus, they became industrial relations officers and started performing industrial relations
functions such as collective bargaining, conciliation, and adjudication.
Employment Exchange (Compulsory notification of vacancies) Act, 1959 and the Apprentices
Act, 1961 were passed to regulate recruitment and training of workers, respectively.
In the view of growing labour legislation commencing with the right to hire and ending with right
to fire, the employees tended to employ welfare or labour officers with a legal background.
21st session of standing Labour conference held in Dec.1963 recommended that the functions of
welfare officer and personnel officers should be precisely demarcated and that the former should not
12
be responsible for dealing with disciplinary cases against workers or appears in court on behalf of the
management against the workers in labour dispute cases.
Personnel Management during 1970s: In the early seventies, as Punekar observes, the personnel
field covered under three major areas of professional disciplines: (1) Labour welfare, (2) Industrial
relations, and (3) Personnel administration. These three areas revealed the chronological order of the
development of the personnel field. Immediately after industrialization, labour welfare, mainly social
reformist in nature, came into the picture. The inevitable emergence of trade unions resistance
organizations to employers opened the field of industrial (or Union-Management) relations. Lastly,
with the development of scientific management of industry, personnel administration took root. The
three areas of labour welfare, industrial relations and personnel administration were being looked
after the three professional functionaries: (1) Welfare officer, (2) Labour officer, and (3) Personnel
officer. However, in the early 80s, the area of labour officer largely merged with personnel administration
and refers to as personnel management.
Personnel Management during 1980s: In 1980s HRM was regarded as a specialized profession such
as that of other professional functions. In addition to industrial relations functions (although sometimes
the industrial relations formed a separate branch), the personnel branch was responsible for
varied functions i.e., employment, safety training, wages and salary administration and research and
development. Indeed, the activities involved in the personnel department were akin to those performed
in this department in other western countries. Specially, where the personnel, industrial
relations and welfare functions were combined in one department, three categories of activities
relating to these functions were obtained. The personnel department involves in technical and allied
services. Thus, industrial relation activities including contract negotiations, grievance handling,
preparation and presentation of arbitration cases and research in labour problems; for educational
activities including employee training, supervisory training, organizational planning and management
development, communication programs etc.; for wage and salary administration, including
preparation of job descriptions, job evaluations, incentive and profits sharing systems and executive
compensation; for employment activities, such as recruiting, psychological testing, medical examination,
interviewing, and employee record keeping; and technical services: health and welfare measures.
The personnel manager’s role is to advice. Usually, advise the line and top management in respect of
legal matters regarding the termination of services and transfer, human relations problems confronting
the line managers and technical procedures in areas, such as wages and salary administration. In
some instances, the personnel manager was required to advise management regarding the improvement
of human climate in the organization.
Human Resource Management during 1990s: During 1990s a new human resources management
has emerged, especially as a result of the globalization and liberalization. The economy and the policy
of India is fast changing in the wake of liberalization policies mooted in year 1990. Consequently the
form and content of capitalist relations between the various factors of production are undergoing a
change. What has emerged a new era of HR Management? As a result of liberalization and
globalization the human resources management and industrial relations have acquired strategic importance.
The success of the new policies mostly depends on to a large extent, on the introduction of
new industrial relations and human resources policies at the national and the organizational levels.
The pressure of change is already visible in the economy and witnessed in the industrial relations and
HRM areas. The world economic order is also changing rapidly. Evolutionary changes are taking
place at revolutionary pace, largely influenced by the external forces, arising out of a desire to
ترجمه صفحه 1 تا 11 کتاب Human Resource Management اثر Mahapatro
فصل اول
مدیریت منابع انسانی : پیشینه، مفهوم و حدود
1.1 مقدمه
جایگاه سازمان های مدرن توسط تغییر دائمی رابطه آن با عوامل محیطی و منابع انسانی توصیف می شود. با توجه به عوامل محیطی شاهد تغییراتی در عملکرد ساختار سازمانی، سلسله رویه های کاری، عادات معمول و اقتصادی، الگوهای سیاسی و اجتماعی در سازمان های موجود هستیم. بعلاوه در منابع انسانی نیز همیشه تغییر وجود دارد. کارکنانی خلاق تر هر روز به استخدام در می آیند، ایده ها و تجربیات جدید، و از طرف دیگر نیروی کار موجود در سازمان که مرتباً در حال تغییر ایده ها، رفتارها و حتی ارزش هایشان هستند موجب تغییرات دائمی می شوند.
از این دو دیدگاه (عامل های محیطی و منابع انسانی) می توان به روندهای زیر پی برد :
• پیچیدگی سازمان ها، کارکنان و سلسله مراتب مالکان، مدیران و کارگران افزایش یافته.
• افزایش تعداد کارکنان، خود اشتغالان و افزایش نیروی کار.
• نیاز بیشتر به آموزش کارکنان از نظر نیازمندی به مهارت های خاص.
• مداخلات عمومی و پیچیدگی های حقوقی در روابط کارگر و کارفرما.
• آموزش پیشرفته، رشد مدیران و حرفه ای سازی آموزش مدیران.
• امکان اشباع شدن موقعیت های اشتغال از نظر افزایش حجم (عرضه) نیروی کار.
• تعداد کارکنانی با سطح تحصیلات رسمی که به طرز نگران کننده ای به دلیل سوء مدیریت و اشتباهات در حال افزایش است.
• رشد سریع تعداد کارکنان به دلیل تفاوت در موقعیت استخدام.
• تشخیص روابط نزدیک بین منافع و درآمدها و توانایی مدیریت منابع انسانی.
در واقع وقتی این روند ها در سازمان آشکار می شوند، توسط مدیران به عنوان مشکل شناسایی می شوند. هرچند تغییر می تواند برای برخی مشکلات راهکار محسوب شود، اما ممکن است مشکلات جدیدی نیز ایجاد کند. لذا نیاز مبرمی به درک این مشکلات، پیش بینی آنها و یافتن راه حلی برای آنها احساس می شود. مسئولیت یافتن راه حل برای این مشکلات با هر یک از مدیرانی است که از طریق برنامه های توسعه جهت رویارویی با اثرات تغییر خود را مهیا کرده اند. بدیهی است هر مدیری از طریق ارائه پیشنهاد و کمک به واحد کارگزینی و اداره امور کارکنان مسئول مدیریت منابع انسانی است.
مدیریت منابع انسانس جوهره هر مدیری است که می خواهد از طریق افرادی با تخصصی غیر از مدیریت اهدافش را بدست آورد. بنابراین هر مدیری باید صلاحیتش را از طریق مدیریت منابع انسانی حفظ کند و ارتقاء بخشد. که چنین رویکردی در سازمانهای مدرن بیشتر به چشم می خورد.
2.1 عامل انسانی و اهمیت آن
مباحث اقتصاد کلان و مدیریت از دیدگاه اقتصاد هند، و در مقابل دو عامل نامطلوب وضعیت استخدام و فقر کارایی ندارند. چگونه می توان این عوامل نامطلوب را از بین برد؟ و از آن مهم تر، چگونه می توان استفاده بهینه از ظرفیت های انسانی که می تواند مفهومی اساسی نه فقط در بیان، بلکه عملاً در تجارت و مدیریت هند باشد را، ارتقاء داد؟ بعلاوه مباحث خرد و کلانی که در ادامه مطرح می شوند مشکلات جدی مدیریت هستند و زمان آن فرا رسیده تا تجارت و مدیریت هند با این قضیه روبرو شود و جهت رفع این معضل همکاری نماید. مباحث خرد و کلانی که از آنها سخن به میان آمد عبارتند از :
• بکارگیری ظرفیت ماشین از انسان بهتر است.
• کشمکش بین تورم و ثبات قیمت ها.
• مشکل جمعیت.
• انگیزش، به کار گماردن و مشاوره.
• مواجهه نیازهای فیزیولوژیکی اولیه و دیگر نیازها.
• کاهش غیبت، صانحه، زیان و خسارت.
• ایجاد فرصت های اشتغال تقریباً تا سطح اشباع.
• حسابداری دارایی های انسانی، منافع و رشد.
• از بین بردن اعتصابات و تحریم ها از طریق اقدامات داوطلبانه.
• طراحی مجدد شغل، توسعه و غنی سازی آن.
• ارتقاء سلامت، خودسازی و خلاقیت.
• ارتقاء صادرات و رشد اقتصادی.
• حفاظت از منابع (تجدید پذیر و تجدید ناپذیر).
• افزایش بازدهی اقتصادی.
• کاهش هزینه و ضایعات.
• ارتقاء هنر، فرهنگ، مذهب، ورزش و فعالیت های اوقات فراغت.
• پذیرش جوامع کوچک و انجمن ها.
• ترویج کارآفرینی و کارآفرینان خودساخته.
• از بین بردن هرگونه تبعیض.
• ترویج حس هویت ملی، آگاهی و همکاری.
• ارتقاء امنیت صنعتی و ملی.
• فقر زدایی کامل.
• ارتقاء کیفیت زندگی شغلی.
• ارتقاء کیفیت زندگی.
منابع انسانی (اعم از دانش، مهارت، توانایی های خلاقیت، هوش و خلق و خوی اکتسابی از محیط از منظر ملی) یک عامل انسانی را شکل می دهند. به نقل از مایکل جی جاسیوس "فاکتور انسانی مفهومی مرکب از عناصر فیزیولوژیکی، روانشناختی، اجتماعی و اخلاقی است که با یکدیگر ارتباطی درونی، میانی و وابسته دارند".
عامل انسانی دارای نیازهای فیزیولوژیکی (غذا، استراحت، شرایط محیطی، امنیت و ...)، نیازهای روانشناختی (استقلال، موفقیت، قدرت و ثروت اندوزی)، نیازهای اجتماعی (وابستگی، شأن اجتماعی، مورد تأیید قرار گرفتن، اعتبار و ...) و دارای سرشت اخلاقی است که حاوی مفاهیمی از قانون و عملکرد می باشد. عامل انسانی تمایل به انجام کاری دارد که آنرا صحیح می پندارد. بدیهی است عامل انسانی بطور طبیعی پویا است، همانطور که در انگیزش و مکانیزم حمایت این مطلب آشکار است. این فرایند در حال گسترش دارای چهار زیر فرآیند است.
در سازمان های مدرن منابع انسانی دارای اهمیت روز افزون هستند. بدیهی است با چنین دیدگاهی، اکثر مشکلات در جایگاه سازمانی بیشتر انسانی و اجتماعی تلقی می شوند تا فیزیکی، فنی یا اقتصادی. عدم پذیرش این حقیقت سبب بروز خسارت عظیم ملی، شرکتی و شخصی می شود. پر واضح است که بهره وری بطور محسوسی با ذات منابع انسانی و مجموعه محیط پیرامون آن، شامل ارتباطات درونی، میانی و وابسته به عوامل اقتصادی و غیر اقتصادی (مثل عوامل سیاسی، مذهبی، فرهنگی، اجتماعی و روانشناختی) مرتبط است. بنابراین اهمیت منابع انسانی را می توان در هر زمانی مورد توجه و بررسی قرار داد.
3.1 مفاهیم مدیریت منابع انسانی
مدیریت کارکنان بخشی از مدیریت است که کارکنان و روابط ایشان در سازمان را مورد بررسی قرار می دهد.
مدیریت منابع انسانی به دنبال آن است که مردان و زنانی که به عنوان نیروی انسانی در شرکت مشغول به کار هستند را تا حدی توانمند سازد که با دستیابی به بالاترین درجه از همکاری به موفقیت های فردی و سازمانی (به عنوان فردی از کارگروه) نائل آیند.
مدیریت منابع انسانی عبارت است از برنامه ریزی، سازماندهی، هدایت و نظارت در تأمین، توسعه، پاداش، یکپارچگی، نگهداری و تفکیک منابع انسانی، به نحوی که اهداف شخصی، سازمانی و اجتماعی محقق گردند.
مدیریت منابع انسانی، زمینه ای از مدیریت است که باید از طریق برنامه ریزی، سازماندهی و نظارت بر توابعی از استخدام، موجب توسعه، نگهداری و بهینه سازی یک نیروی کار گردد. از جمله این توابع می توان به موارد زیر اشاره کرد.
الف - اهدافی که شرکت برای دستیابی به آنها تأسیس شده اثر بخش هستند.
ب - اهداف کارکنانی که در تمام سطوح مشغول به خدمت هستند، در بالاترین درجه ممکن قرار دارد.
ج - اهداف اجتماعی به قدر کفایت مد نظر قرار گرفته اند.
مدیریت منابع انسانی می تواند به عنوان بخشی از مفهوم مدیریت در نظر گرفته شود که با مباحث زیر در ارتباط است.
• تمامی تصمیمات، استراتژی ها، عوامل، اصول، عملکردها، شیوه ها، کارکردها، فعالیت ها، و روشهای مرتبط با مدیریتِ افرادی که به عنوان کارکنان در هر نوع سازمانی مشغول به کار هستند.
• تمام ابعاد مرتبط با افراد در روابط کاریشان و تمام پویایی های که از این روابط ناشی می شود.
• ارزش افزوده شده به کالاها، خدمات و زندگی شغلی کارکنان، که به وسیله آن از ادامه موفقیت های سازمانی در محیط متغیر اطمینان حاصل می گردد (www.hrsgb.org.za/hr_scope_and_definition.html).
مدیریت منابع انسانی (HRM) فرآیندی است که افراد و سازمان ها را گرد هم می آورد تا هر یک به اهداف خود دست یابند. این بخشی از فرآیند مدیریت است که به مدیریت منابع انسانی در یک سازمان می پردازد و سعی دارد از طریق همکاری صمیمانه افراد با یکدیگر از آنها محافظت کند.
بطور خلاصه مدیریت منابع انسانی را می توان هنر جذب، توسعه و نگهداری نیروی کار شایسته برای کسب اهداف سازمان به شکلی موثر و با روشی کارآمد در نظر گرفت.
به نقل از Invancevich و Glueck، "مدیریت منابع انسانی با استفاده موثر از افراد برای دستیابی به اهداف سازمانی و فردی در ارتباط است و روشی برای مدیریت شغلی افراد جهت ارائه بهترین عملکردشان به سازمان است".
4.1 وظیفه ای جدید برای منابع انسانی
منابع انسانی هرگز تا این حد مورد نیاز نبوده است. مواجهه با نیروهای رقابتی که امروزه با آنها روبرو هستیم و در آینده نیز با آنها مواجه خواهیم شد برتری سازمانی را می طلبد و بدست آوردن این برتری توسط تمرکز بر یادگیری، کیفیت، کارگروهی و مهندسی مجدد توابعی از آنچه سازمان از طریق عملکرد کارکنان بدست می آورد، میسر می گردد. برای دستیابی به این برتری باید به کار "اداره منابع انسانی" نگاهی بیندازیم.
بوسیله طراحی نقشی کاملاً جدید و دستور کاری که نتیجه آن افزایش ارزش سازمان نزد مشتریان، سرمایه گذاران و کارکنان است، اداره منابع انسانی می تواند به برتری سازمان از طریق کمک به سلسله مراتب مدیریت و کارشناسان ارشد در هدایت برنامه ریزی ها از تئوری به عمل کمک کند. که با افزایش تبحر در این کار، فعالیتها سازماندهی شده و اجرا می گردند. آنها باید نماینده کارکنان باشند و در نهایت از طریق کمک به سازمان ظرفیت تغییر را بهبود بخشند. مسئولیت تغییر نقش اداره منابع انسانی بر عهده مدیریت اجرایی سازمان و سلسله مراتب مدیریت است. این اداره به سازمان در مواجهه با چالش های بی وقفه ای نظیر جهانی سازی، سودآوری از طریق رشد، تکنولوژی، سرمایه های فکری، و بزرگترین چالش سازمان یعنی ظاهر آن، از طریق سازگار کردن سازمان با شرایط جاری کمک می کند.
نقش جدید اداره منابع انسانی آنرا توانمند می سازد تا استراتژی ها را به عمل درآورد، فرآیند ها را هوشمندانه و موثر مدیریت کند، تعهد و همکاری کارکنان را به حداکثر ممکن برساند، و شرایطی برای تغییر یکپارچه ایجاد شود. همچنین، اداره منابع انسانی باید به شریکی در اجرای استراتژی تبدیل شود که با اجرا و هدايت تصميمات جدي در خصوص چگونگي سازماندهي شرکت براي به اجرا در آوردن استراتژی مشارکت کند. ایجاد شرایطی برای این مباحثه در گرو چهار نکته زیر است.
1- اداره منابع انسانی ساختار سازمانی را از طریق شناسایی مسیر شرکت در انجام کسب و کار تعریف می کند.
2- اداره منابع انسانی باید مسئولیت ارزیابی سازمان را بر عهده داشته باشد.
3- اداره منابع انسانی به عنوان شریک استراتژیک مسئول شناسایی روش هایی برای نوسازی بخش هایی از ساختار سازمانی است که نیازمند آن می باشند.
4- اداره منابع انسانی باید سهمی از کارش داشته باشد و الویت بندی واضحی ایجاد کند.
اداره منابع انسانی در نقش جدید خود به عنوان خبرگان مدیریت عمومی نیازمند ایجاد تغییر اساسی در تصویر سنتی خود هستند و همزمان باید از صحت عملکرد کلیه امور کاری سازمان نیز اطمینان حاصل کنند. آنها باید پاسخگو این امر باشند که از حس تعهد به سازمان و همکاری تمام عیار کارکنان اطمینان یافته اند. همچنین مسئول جهت دهی و آموزش سلسله مراتب مدیریت در مورد اهمیت تعالی اخلاقی کارکنان و نحوه کسب آن می باشند. و باید صدای کارکنان در مباحثه با مدیریت باشند. نقش جدید اداره منابع انسانی می تواند آنرا در مسائلی از جمله پیشنهاد برای بکارگیری تیم های بیشتر در برخی پروژه ها یا دادن اختیارات بیشتر به کارکنان در انجام کارهای روزمره شان درگیر کند.
اداره منابع انسانی جدید باید نماینده تغییر گردد، بطوریکه ظرفیت سازمان را جهت پذیرش تغییر افزایش دهد. به عبارت دیگر آنها تغییر ایجاد نمی کنند، بلکه از اجرای آن اطمینان حاصل می کنند. مأموریت جدید این گروه نیازمند تغییر دراماتیک طرز فکر و رفتار حرفه ای آن است. سرمایه گذاری در شیوه های منابع انسانی راه دیگری است که به سازمان اجازه می دهد تا بداند منابع انسانی ارزش پول و توجهی است که سازمان در این راه هزینه می کند. و در نهایت با اهمیت ترین چیزی که مدیران می توانند در مأموریت جدید اداره منابع انسانی به آن توجه کنند، کیفیت اداره منابع انسانی است. مجریان خبره باید فراتر از کلیشه های حرفه منابع انسانی عمل کنند و صرفاً یک حمایت ساده از منابع انسانی کفایت نمی کند، بلکه باید کاری کنند که از تمام پتانسیل منابع انسانی استفاده شود.
نقش جدید اداره منابع انسانی در شرکتی که من برای آن کار می کنم مشهود است. آنها در هر تیم یا جلسه شرکت حضور دارند تا مطمئن شوند از تمام مسائل کارکنان مطلع هستند. آنها صدای کارکنان و مسئول آموزش سلسله مراتب مدیران در حفظ اخلاق کارکنان هستند. هر تغییری که نیاز باشد انجام می دهند و بطور مداوم هر 6 ماه تغییراتی داریم. هرچند در برنامه یا جایگاه ها تغییراتی داریم، اما منابع انسانی برای کمک در آنجا حضور دارد.
اداره منابع انسانی سازمانی که من در آن کار می کنم اغلب درگیر جنبه هایی از کار روزانه است، که بطور سنتی این اداره هرگز خودش را با آنها درگیر نمی کند. بطور خاص اداره منابع انسانی و مدیریت ارشد سمینارهای آموزشی را بطور مداوم برای تیم مدیران میانی ترتیب می دهند. آنها راه هایی را جهت بهبود رفتار و کارایی کارکنان مطرح می کنند و در کارهای روزانه ما بسیار فعال هستند. کارکنان نیز این نکته را می دانند که این اداره همانطور که ابزاری برای شرکت محسوب می شود، به آنها نیز خدمت می کند.
همچنین جلسات ارزیابی داریم که به کارکنان امکان می دهد تا نظرات خود را در مورد شرکت و مسائل پرسنل مطرح کنند. مدیریت منابع انسانی همچنین تمایل دارد تا راهنمای مسیر شغلی کارکنان باشد و موسسات آموزشی را بیابد که برای توسعه مهارت کارکنان به منظور دستیابی به بالاترین سطح از نتایج در محل کار مناسبترین باشند. انگیزش یک عامل بزرگ در یادگیری شغلی و آموزش حرفه است که محرک کارکنان در نقش جاری آنها یا انتخاب مشاغل آتی آنها در شرکت است.
با افزایش روز افزون و تنوع نیروی کار موجود، سازمان ها نیز سعی می کنند تا با بهره گیری از آن در جهت به حداکثر رساندن منافع خود استفاده کنند. مدیران منابع انسانی با دیدگاه قدیمی، بازیگران کناری در مقابل مهاجمین مقابل هستند. شخصاً هر زمان که من سئوالی در مورد آینده خود در سازمان دارم، منابع انسانی پاسخگوی سئوالات من بوده و به نحوی من را راهنمایی کرده که پتانسیل خود را بهتر درک کرده ام. اکنون در مورد حجم کار اداره منابع انسانی متوجه شده ام که فراتر از تهیه لیست کارکرد ماهانه و حقوق است.
5.1 نقش "تغییر دهنده" مدیریت منابع انسانی
زمانه عوض شده و نقش اداره منابع انسانی در سازمان نیز نیازمند تغییر است. این اداره دیگر نمی تواند فقط نگهدارنده سوابق باشد، بلکه باید نگهدارنده اشتیاق و انگیزش کارکنان باشد. هدایت شرکت به سمت بهره برداری از کارکنان به عنوان منابع تجدید پذیر مسئولیت اداره منابع انسانی است. از دیدگاه اقتصاد جهانی امروزه هر کسی می تواند یک کامپیوتر آخرین مدل و مجهز به نرم افزارهای مورد نیاز داشته باشد. به عبارت دیگر می توانند محصولات یکسانی داشته باشند. پس چرا شرکت ها نمی توانند کارکنانی مشابه
دانشگاه جامع علمی کاربردی
