زبان شناسي


Linguistics:

Linguistics is a systematic study of language and its systems with the ultimate goal of understanding human mind. In linguistics there are several layers and systems interacting each others we are going to talk about semantics.

Semantic:

It is the semantics study of meaning in language.

Different types of meaning:

DENOTATIVE: is dictionary meaning of expressions. (Literal meaning)

CONNOTATIVE: is the associative or figurative meaning which we give to words. (Abstract).

In language and semantics:

We are dealing just denotative meaning. Semantics study meaning at 2 levels:

WORD: in semantics instead of word we have CONSEPTمفهوم

Sentences: in semantics instead of word we have PROPOSITION

Types of Concepts:

Word:

تمامی چیزهای دنیا ​​​​Things (All Noun) ​​

تمامی فعلها – صفت ها- قیدها​​ ​Events (All Verbs)

(حروف تعریف a- an the) ​​ ​Attributed (All Adj, Adv, Determiners)

ضمایر ملکی- موصولی، حرفهاي اضافه) , واپوسترواس that- which) ​​ Relation

 مثال: she hit the bug with the magazine
​​T E A T R A T
 مثال Mary saw a magazine on the table.
​​T E A T R A T


Another point in semantics at (word level and concept level) is the very important idea:
Each word is a boundle of meaning it means that you can analysis each concept into its components (features), this is called: "Semantic Analysis".

The important point is that each language, packages the concepts differently.

Tulip

---

+animate

---

+plant

---

+flower
• نکته : همیشه از کل به جزء می اییم
•
The important point is that each language packages the concept differently.
​
Semantic analysis & semantic features are very useful in the following cases:
یکی از کاربردها:» در ترجمه باید بدانیم که الزاما جایگزین معنایی یک کلمه در زبان مبدا یک کلمه در زبان مقصد نیست.
Linguistic and application استفاده ان در زبانشناسی می باشد:

Through this analysis we fine semantic relation:
The most famous semantic relation is (lexical relation)

Types of Lexical relation:
که کلمات یا هم معنی هستند-یا متضاد-یا مترادف-یا هم خانواده
1. SYNONYMY:
When 2 or more words share semantic feature they are called synonymous
almost/nearly
big/larg
board/wide
buy/purches
cab/taxi
car/automobil
couch/sofa
freedom/liberty

• there are synonymous (total sameness) is impossible
2. ANTONYMY:
When two words share all semantic features but "one". They are called
Antonym.

Pack/unpack
Lengthen/shorten
Raise/lower
Tie/untie


We have 3 type of antonymous:
i. Gradable (می شود به آنها پسوند ترین اضافه کر) Long –Short
ii. Non gradableیا هست یا نیست) ) dead-alive
iii. reversives( کلا در مورد افعال می باشد) Close-open

3-HYPONYMY:
When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another.

When all the semantic features of a concept are included in the semantic features of another concept + that concept the relation is hyponymy. In the above example: snake is hyponymy of reptile and adder is the hyponym of snake adder an Goa are is cohyponious because they share the same super ordinate.





ADEER, PALTON, BOA هر سه CO-HAYPONIM

یعنی هم خانواده هستند

هر سه انها هایپونیم مار می باشند و مار هایپونیم retile و





4-prototype:

When a concept has the character of an instance of a category it is called prototype. This concept helps you to explain the features of certain words.



5-homophon:

When 2 or more words have the same pronunciation but different meaning (semantic feature) they are homophone.

bare/bear
meat/meet
flower/flour
pail/pale
right/write

6, 7-homonymy & polysemy:

When 2 words with different meanings have the same spelling and pronunciation but different entries in dictionary they are homonyms.

bank-bat-mole-pupil-race

polysemy when one single word has different meanings (although related) with just one entry in the dictionaries this is polysemy.

head
foot
run

8-Metonemy:

When two concepts are closely related in many ways and one concept is used instead of the other this relation is called metonymy.

President-White house

کتری داره می جوشه (هر گاه دو تا چیزی با هم رابطه ای نزدیک دارند مانند کتری و اب جوش رابطه ظرف و محتوی،کل جزو و ،سمبل )reprisentive








Collocation:

The tendency of each language to put the words together in specific form is collocation, we have 2 types collocation:

 fixed collocation​ pro and con
 partial collocation ​dependent on


تمایل هر زبان به هم ایی هم نشینی در یک جمله
خواب دیدن درفارسی و در انگلیسی رویا دیدن معنی می شود.
9-Portotyp:
The characteristic instant of category
For furniture
(Chair is the better one bench stool)

ADJUSTMENT

Semantics analysis at semantic level: In semantic instead of semantic we have PROROSION



PROPOSITION:

The hidden message of each sentence." In the semantics proposition are shown informal in very simple sentences. Remember that each sentence has at least one proposition but mostly sentence conveyمنتقل کردن more than one proposition.

We have two type of Proposition:

1- Stat propositions ––– to be, become, get make
2- Event propositions––––action verbs.

Semantic Roles (or thematic roles or casseroles)

State propositions:
The state proposition has 2 main parts:
In state propositions we have 2 thematic roles:
• Topic: is the concept being talk about comment (مسنداليه)
• Comment: consist of thing or attribute for describe topic + stat relation ((مسند
The book is peters'====the topic is book and peter is an ownership
Event propositions:
In event proposition we have many different roles:

1) agent
2) action
3) causer
4) instrument
5) location
6) time
7) beneficiary
source
9) goal
10) experience
11) stimulus
12) affected(theme\patient)

EVENT: if the central concept is an EVENT concept,

ACTION: A central event concept may refer to an action.
RUN, HIT, EAT, SWIM
EXPERIENCE: are concepts which refer to the activities of the five sencees or cognitive or psychological activities for example:
SMELL-SEE- HEAR- THINK-COVENT
PROCESS: ALWAYS REPRESENT A CHANGE OF STAT

DIE-BECOME SOUR-FREEZE
The milk soured
The dog died
The ice melted



Pragmatics:
Definition 1 -- (تعريف) is the systematic study of the relation between (speaker and listener, reader and writer)
Definition 2-"the study intended speaker's meaning".
Definition 3- "the study of invisible meaning, what is not said but understood".

**The interesting point pragmatics is that. This is the interesting the first time in linguistic study that speaker and listener together are study.

***so as you see, we have to find the tools that make people understand each other:

1- context:
We have generally 2 types of context:
a) general context
b) co-text
Most of our understanding is related to context
There are many expressions in linguistics which their meanings are related to the context, these words are called DEIXIS we have 3 types of diexis:
• 1- person
• 2- time
• 3- place

2- refer____infer:
Generally speaking the whole process of communication is referring and inferring in all communication cases there is a sender and a receiver (writer @ speaker=senders, listener @ reader=receiver)
- some times refer and infer is so simple
- Because what you are referring is in the context. for example:
Close the door (the door is in the context) this is because of language is arbitrary
زبان قراردادی
که گویشوران زبان با هم توافق کردند و این توافق در زبان انها مانده است.
There are some points for this process of refer and infer.
. arbitrariness languages
. Pre supposition: as a very strong tool of pragmatics helps the speakers and listener understands each other by definition presupposition is what the speakers and writher thinks (assume) is true or known by a listener or reader.
. Anaphora/cataphora: in this process of refer infer sometimes you see that the reference of a diexce (antecedent) come before the diexis (anaphora) this relationship is called anaphoric. But if diexis comes before the reference diexis (cataphora) and the relationship is called (cataphoric).
In pragmatic terms anaphoric expression are easer to recognize, however in many language both can b used.

- I was playing in the garden the little (reference) puppy with black ears.
- My cousin (diexcis) was so young when he (dixces) passes away. My mom suffered a lot after his death. He was the only son of my aunt.
- The class (anticident) is small and it (anaphora) is too hot.
- he (anaphora) is a cool guy

There is an interesting test to check the underlining presupposition it is called (constancy under negation)
Ex: you were running the red light with 100km per hour

So when a writer or listener presupposes correctly the process is successful and listener or reader gets the massage





3-Speech acts:
In language we have a form and a function for each sentence. It means that every sentence is stated for a reason (function or illocutionary force
- each sentence can take one of the following forces:
• question
• imperative
• statement
• exclamatory
But they are 158 at least function in English
- each form may be used for many different function
Ex: It is hot in here (declaration) or (a command) to open the window
And interestingly each function may take several forms
Sit down
Sit down pls
Would you mind sitting down
You may, be sit it

If form and function are closely related (imperative, command) (statement) this is called direct speech but if form and function do not match.
Ex: you may sit down sir
In language different regarding the use of direct or indirect speech act because of the concept of politeness.

4-politness in pragmatics:

This is different from athics in linguistics politeness is signaled in 2 ways
A: using direct or indirect speech act
B: face saving language: it is use that people have 2 faces: 1-negative2-positive
1) Negative: prefer loneliness and this people are reserved and introvert they do not want group activity
2) positive: love to share talk and working in a group if you are going to be polite you have to save people's face by your language using expressions starting with lets or why don't we and for negative face use expiration like I know you are busy but….I'm sorry to irrupted you are regarded polite by face saving you may be impolite if you are face threatening by your language.








Discourse analysis
The last or final linguistic level is discourse by definition discourse analysis is the study of language beyond sentence level.
Another definition of sentence of discourse analysis: the semantic study of context.
As we already said context is the general term for all contexts we have physical context and linguistic context (co text or text)
By definition that includes all other linguistic element accompany a linguistic element
برای یک واحد زبانی مثل لغت سایر لغات و جمله های اطراف آن متن به حساب می آیند
In linguistic we have two types of text:
A: written text (written discourse) this is paragraph.
B: spoken discourse which is conversation.
(Written discourse)
Any paragraph (as the unit of discourse) should at least include two sentences. But a normal standard paragraph includes 5 sentences (topic Support conclusion)
The point is that not all sentences can come together and make a paragraph, for this purpose you should know that each written discourse should have two important qualities:
1. Coherence
2. Cohesion
Cohesion: is linguistic unity within the sentences of a paragraph this quality is visible.
Cohesion: is provided through cohesive devise they are: pronouns, repetition, substitutions, synonymy, hyponymy, Diexis, sequence of time, omission, punctuation, conjunction
Coherence: by definition it is the abstract semantic relation in a paragraph. It is what a reader gives to a text, actually coherence is exist but it is not visible, however there are some points you can check to find coherence in a context 1. All sentences should be about one subject (topic) there is no sentences which is not about it 2. All sentences try to support one point about topic
Spoken discourse
The unit of spoken discourse is conversation
Conversation analysis: 1.every conversation is done between two persons 2. There should be turn-taking one should speaks the other should listens for a conversation to be successful turn-taking is necessary 3.shift of turn otherwise this is speech.
Sometimes the speaker wants to hold the floor. Usually to show that one speakers turn is over the speaker pusses or ask a question on the other hand if the listener wants to show that he want the turn he may use the following methods body shift or making some sounds.
And in the right moment in the speaker pusses start speaking.
If one wants to speak longer and hold the floor he should avoid long puss or if he want puss he does it in the middle of the structure and for breathing he use fillers.
Any conversation is possible because the speaker and listener want to do it and cooperate. This is so important that Paol Grace has provided the cooperative principle.
Cooperative principle:
Based on Grice for each conversation there should be four maxims and each of them should be followed and observe to have the convention
1. Maximal quantity: say what you have proof and evidence for
2. Maximal quantity: say as much as needed
3. Maximal of manner: speak clear and to the point
4. Maximal of relation: Coherence .your words should be coherently related although Grice believes that for a good conversation these maxims are necessary to observed we in real world mostly break them in reality we tell lie violence to the firs maximal.
We talk a lot or less than necessary. (Violence to the maxims of quantity, we answer two questions in or irrelevant way for example:
A: are you coming to my party tonight
B: I have linguistic tomorrow (violence to the maxim of relation)
We use Irony: we speak ambiguously… violence to the maxim of manner
We do all these but still understand each other why so! Because of quality in language which is call implicative.
Implicative: this is by definition on additional meaning which is conveyed by other structure.
This means that you say something for example: I have linguistic tomorrow it says something.
However it implies that the person should stay home and study tonight so he cannot go to the friend’s party.
In this way, this conversation is meaningful. It is possible because of people’s background knowledge.
Background knowledge: 1.whatever you have in your long-term memory this knowledge is acquired through and development from childhood.2.life experience 3. Education
Information is stored and arranged in your long term memory inform of schema and scripts
Schema is the unit of storing things (this is a conventional knowledge) on the other hand scripts is the unit of storage for event.
Implicative is possible because of shared background knowledge.
However hedge is prefabricated patterns which are used by speakers to show that the speaker is observing maxim.
Like as far as I know (maxim 1)
To put it in nutshell (maxim 2)
In another world (maxim 3)