Semantic hierarchy :
By hierarchy, we mean the order we use to arrange the elements to make a set. In discourse making we need to put the sounds together to make the words, and we put the words together to make the phrases , and phrases together to make sentences, sentences together to make a concept, and then paragraphs make episode and finally an episode to make a meaningful discourse as a text.Thus, the steps which should be taken to form a meaningful discourse is called semantic hierarchy.
The communication situation :
To make a communication situation we need to first know what we want to say, second what to choose to have the form of the surface structure, and third how to put the meaning which is not said in our discourse, the communication situation can happen and based on it we have an emotive meaning in our listener which should be transferred into the second language while we are translating it .For example : In the sentence “ please empty the garbage for me “ we have a request with the emotive meaning of a question, that is the speaker isn't ordering, he is asking for a request, so it should be transferred in a way that both the request and its emotive meaning can be transferred.

Chapter 4

Kinds of meaning ; In general , there are three kinds of meaning as follows :
1-Refrentional meaning : Is the word which is given two special thing, person, or event based on a linguistic convention.For example : An apple is used to refer to a special fruit.
2-Organization meaning : Is more description which is used to make the meaning of a word or event of a person, thing or event more clearly. For example : The book is in the bed room, it,s on the table next to the window.
3-Situational meaning : There are a lot of factors like the cultural background and the context in
has been used which is telling us that the meaning of the sentence is depending on them, so we cannot recognize the exact meaning independent of the situation.
Implicit and explicit meaning

-Implicit meaning : We mean something which is beyond the text and not stated directly because the writer or speaker suppose that his reader knows it or can imply it out of text. Implicit meaning can be got from the information that text has given as elsewhere or own information that the writer believes, we have.

-Explicit meaning : By explicit meaning we mean that the information which is given to us directly through the actual text.
The Referential implicit meaning : In some languages there is no need to refer to all references in the sentences because they can be implied. For example when the information has been given in the question, in the answer they can be omitted, but implied by the reader. In English the article “A” or “an” should be used explicitly; otherwise it is grammatically wrong, but when the subject or object is plural, then the number can be given and the noun can be implied.
Sometimes we have ambiguity when we cannot recognize between the agent ( the doer of action ) and the affected ( the receiver of an action), but the rest of the text can remove such an ambiguity enough reference. In some languages like Persian in which the active voice is plural, the ambiguity has not been made between the agent and the affected in the first place.

Example How many people came ? Ten- people can be implied because of the reference in the question.
shooting of the hunter ( it is ambiguous ) we don't know whether the hunters were shoot or they shot their prey. and the following sentence in the text can remove or ambiguity.
Organizational Implicit meaning :
It can help us to imply the meaning of the text. That is first we need to know the referential meaning and then we need to know how it was being described in another statement with much more description or information. For example : with passive structure in which the focus is on the object we can clarify and develop some more information which can be called organizational meaning, but it should be connected to its first reference of the first sentences of the text.
Implicit Situational meaning : Here the reader or the translator should imply the meaning which is not stated out of the situation in which it has been used. For example “ when we have john made Queens list “.We should know that the sentence was related to a gathering at Queen's palace, and thelist of the guests has been prepared by John. John himself should be implied as the vice-president of Queen.

Chapter 5
Establishing the Translation project
-The project of translation cosists of four items : Text, Target, Team, Tools which are also called the Four Ts.
1-Text : By text, we mean the document, article, book, etc. which should be translated i.e. that is the materials under translation.
2-Target : By target, mean both the audience and their language that is we should know about their age, education, and knowledge of the source language and the receptor.
3-Team : By team, we mean the translator and the consultants and anyone who is helping him to have his final draft. And sometimes to do a translation we have more than one translator as well as an editor and a group of consultants, so we have a committee for a translation project in which every one has a well-defined role.
4-Tools : By tools , we mean any instruments or devices which can help the translator to improve the translation, like dictionary, grammar books, cultural books, etc.
Exegesis :
The first or several reading of a text by the translator before translating the text is called exegesis, that is, the translator should read the text as many time as he needs to get the semantic in the text with the use of any tools which can be helpful. Besides, he should analyse the text to get all the themes and ambiguities of it, and think about the methods to remove those ambiguities.
Transferred and Initial Drafts :
a-Transferred Draft : By transferred we mean when the translator has no problem with text analysis and he is prepared to transfer the materials and concepts into the receptor language.
b-Initial Draft : By initial draft we mean the first version of translation before its final draft. It can be of two types:
-The one in which the translator is putting down a draft which is word-for-word and leave it open to re-read and revise its syntax, and naturalness.
-The second one is when translators in a group are discussing about the semantics and syntax and idiomatic translation before they come up with the agreement to put down one certain form.
Evaluation:
It is summarize in three major elements ; Accuracy, Clearness and Naturalness. That is the translator should be sure of the correctness of all the words and structures he has used , and he should be sure that no ambiguity is created for the reader of the receptor language and then he should be sure that It is completely fit into the mother-tongue syntax and semantics. Then the text should be read for some listeners to remove any problem related to accuracy, clearness and naturalness.
Revised Draft :
After the evaluation we have to revise the draft. That we have to put away the original text and work on the clarity and redundancy of words and structures which are not natural in the receptor language to be used.We should work on as much as need to prepare the final draft.
Consultation :
It is focusing on the accuracy, naturalness and the effect of translated version on the readers or receptors, that is first a consultant wants to know everything about the process of translation and the four Ts and whether the text is correct enough, natural and clear enough, and accepted enough for the receptor.
Final Draft :
For the final draft , the translator should put into practice all the suggestions given by the consultants, and he should give the changes to his translation and check it again with some native speakers when he's sure about his translated version , it can be typed, and again it should be checked especially to remove spelling problems. And if he is going to include a text or some pictures again they should be checked with receptors, before printing the final draft.


By : A. Mohammadi