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Subject: advertising





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Advertising
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A Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s
Advertising or advertizing[1][2][3] in business[citation needed] is a form of marketing communication used to encourage, persuade, or manipulate an audience (viewers, readers or listeners; sometimes a specific group) to take or continue to take some action. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common. This type of work belongs to a category called affective labor.
In Latin, ad vertere means "to turn toward".[4] The purpose of advertising may also be to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful. Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various old media; including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television advertisement, radio advertisement, outdoor advertising or direct mail; or new media such as blogs, websites or text messages.
Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "branding", which involves associating a product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement (PSA).
Modern advertising was created with the innovative techniques introduced with tobacco advertising in the 1920s, most significantly with the campaigns of Edward Bernays, which is often considered the founder of modern, Madison Avenue advertising.[5][6][7]
In 2010, spending on advertising was estimated at $143 billion in the United States and $467 billion worldwide[8]
Internationally, the largest ("big four") advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP.[9]
[
History[
Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BCE.[10]
In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th centuries BC) of bamboo flutes played to sell candy. Advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with "Jinan Liu’s Fine Needle Shop" and "We buy high quality steel rods and make fine quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time" written above and below [2] is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.[11]
In Europe, as the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable to read, instead of signs that read "cobbler", "miller", "tailor", or "blacksmith" would use an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers.
In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged Europe. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content.
19th century[t]


Edo period advertising flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan
Thomas J. Barratt from London has been called "the father of modern advertising".[12][13][14] Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an effective advertising campaign for the company products, which involved the use of targeted slogans, images and phrases. One of his slogans, ""Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap?" was famous in its day and into the 20th century.[15][16] Under Barratt's guidance, Pears Soap became the world's first legally registered brand.[when?]
An advertising tactic that he used was to associate the Pears brand with high culture and quality. Most famously, he used the painting Bubbles by John Everett Millais as an advertisement by adding a bar of Pears soap into the foreground. (Millais protested at this alteration of his work, but in vain as Barrat had bought the copyright.[17]) Barratt continued this theme with a series of adverts of well groomed middle-class children, associating Pears with domestic comfort and aspirations of high society.
Barrat established Pears Annual in 1891 as a spin-off magazine which promoted contemporary illustration and colour printing and in 1897 added the Pears Cyclopedia a one-volume encyclopedia.[18] From the early 20th century Pears was famous for the annual "Miss Pears" competition in which parents entered their children into the high-profile hunt for a young brand ambassador to be used on packaging and in consumer promotions. He recruited scientists and the celebrities of the day to publicly endorse the product. Lillie Langtry, a British music hall singer and stage actress with a famous ivory complexion, received income as the first woman to endorse a commercial product, advertising Pears Soap.
Barratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising and these were widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that "tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different – it hits the present taste."[13]
As the economy expanded across the world during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising.
In June 1836, French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad – the copy, layout, and artwork – was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed in the late 19th century when the advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded. Ayer and Son offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession. [19] Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. N. W. Ayer & Son was the first full-service agency to assume responsibility for advertising content. N.W. Ayer opened in 1869, and was located in Philadelphia.[19]
20th century[edit]


A 1900 advertisement for Pears soap


A print advertisement for the 1913 issue of the Encyclopædia Britannica
Advertising increased dramatically in the United States as industrialization expanded the supply of manufactured products. In order to profit from this higher rate of production, industry needed to recruit workers as consumers of factory products. It did so through the invention of mass marketing designed to influence the population's economic behavior on a larger scale.[20] In the 1910s and 1920s, advertisers in the U.S. adopted the doctrine that human instincts could be targeted and harnessed – "sublimated" into the desire to purchase commodities.[21] Edward Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, became associated with the method and is now often considered the founder of modern advertising.[5][6][7]
The tobacco industry was one of the firsts to make use of mass production, with the introduction of the Bonsack machine to roll cigarettes. The Bonsack machine allowed the production of cigarettes for a mass markets, and the tobacco industry needed to match such an increase in supply with the creation of a demand from the masses through advertising.[22] The tobacco companies pioneered the new advertising techniques when they hired Bernays to create positive associations with tobacco smoking.[5][6][7]
Advertising was also used as a vehicle for cultural assimilation, encouraging workers to exchange their traditional habits and community structure in favor of a shared "modern" lifestyle.[23] An important tool for influencing immigrant workers was the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers (AAFLN). The AAFLN was primarily an advertising agency but also gained heavily centralized control over much of the immigrant press.[24][25]
At the turn of the 20th century, there were few career choices for women in business; however, advertising was one of the few. Since women were responsible for most of the purchasing done in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "The skin you love to touch".[26][non-primary source needed]
Influence of early psychology[edit]
In the early 20th century, psychologists Walter D. Scott and John B. Watson contributed applied psychological theory to the field of advertising. Scott said, “Man has been called the reasoning animal but he could with greater truthfulness be called the creature of suggestion. He is reasonable, but he is to a greater extent suggestible”.[27] He demonstrated this through his advertising technique of a direct command to the consumer. The former chair at Johns Hopkins University, John B. Watson was a highly recognized psychologist in the 1920s. After leaving the field of academia he turned his attention towards advertising where he implemented the concepts of Behaviorism into advertising. This focused on appealing to the basic emotions of the consumer: love, hate, and fear. This type of advertising proved to be extremely effective as it suited the changing social context which lead to heavy influence of future advertising strategy and cemented the place of psychology in advertising.
On the radio from the 1920s[edit]


Advertisement for a live radio broadcast, sponsored by a milk company and published in the Los Angeles Times on May 6, 1930
In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups.[28]
When the practice of sponsoring programs was popularized, each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in exchange for a brief mention of the business' name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows. However, radio station owners soon realized they could earn more money by selling sponsorship rights in small time allocations to multiple businesses throughout their radio station's broadcasts, rather than selling the sponsorship rights to single businesses per show.
Public service advertising in WW2[e]
The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS,[citation needed] political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.
Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest – it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy.
Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.
In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers.
Public service advertising reached its height during World War I and World War II under the direction of more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the nation's largest developer of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and non-profit organizations, including the longest-running PSA campaign, Smokey Bear.
Commercial television in the 1950s[edit]
This practice was carried over to commercial television in the late 1940s and early 1950s. A fierce battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should be considered a part of the commons – to be used only non-commercially and for the public good. The United Kingdom pursued a public funding model for the BBC, originally a private company, the British Broadcasting Company, but incorporated as a public body by Royal Charter in 1927. In Canada, advocates like Graham Spry were likewise able to persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. However, in the United States, the capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1934 which created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).[28] However, the U.S. Congress did require commercial broadcasting companies to operate in the "public interest, convenience, and necessity".[29] Public broadcasting now exists in the United States due to the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act which led to the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Public Radio (NPR).
In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show – up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame.
Media diversification in the 1960s]
In the 1960s, campaigns featuring heavy spending in different mass media channels became more prominent. For example, the Esso gasoline company spent hundreds of millions of dollars on a brand and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-2. Knowledge
3. Liking
4. Preference
5. Conviction
6. Purchase
• Means-End Theory suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end-state.
• Leverage Points aim to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values.
Marketing mix[]
Main article: Marketing mix
The marketing mix has been a key concept to advertising, it was proposed by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. The marketing mix consists of four basic elements called the four P's. Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to buy the product.[37]
Types of advertising[
Play media

An advertisement for the Wikimedia Foundation


An advertisement for a diner. Such signs are common on storefronts.


Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this human billboard.


A bus with an advertisement for GAP in Singapore. Buses and other vehicles are popular media for advertisers.


Mobile Billboard in East Coast Park, Singapore


A DBAG Class 101 with UNICEF ads at Ingolstadt main railway station


A London Bus, with a film advertisement along its side.
Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards and forehead advertising, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.
Television advertising / Music in advertising
The television commercial is generally considered[by whom?] the most effective mass-market advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices television networks charge for commercial airtime during popular events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television.[citation needed] The average cost of a single thirty-second television spot during this game reached US$3.5 million in 2012.[citation needed] Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops[38] or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience.[39] More controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the background[40] where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events.[41][42] Virtual product placement is also possible.[43][44]
Infomercials
An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The word "infomercial" is a portmanteau of the words "information" and "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals.
Radio advertising
Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found not only on air, but also online. According to Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U.S. population.
Online advertising
Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in text ads, Rich Media Ads, Social network advertising, online as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. A form of press advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or service. Another form of press advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can include art) that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.
Billboard advertising
Billboards are large structures located in public places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or office buildings, and in stadiums.


The RedEye newspaper advertised to its target market at North Avenue Beach with a sailboat billboard on Lake Michigan.
Mobile billboard advertising
Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising, One-day, and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store openings and similar promotional events, and Big advertisements from smaller companies.
In-store advertising
In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of aisles and near checkout counters (aka POP – Point of Purchase display), eye-catching displays promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.
Coffee cup advertising
Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that is distributed out of an office, café, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United States, India, and parts of the Middle East.[citation needed]
Street advertising
This type of advertising first came to prominence in the UK by Street Advertising Services to create outdoor advertising on street furniture and pavements. Working with products such as Reverse Graffiti, air dancers and 3D pavement advertising, the media became an affordable and effective tool for getting brand messages out into public spaces.
Sheltered Outdoor Advertising
This type of advertising opens the possibility of combining outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large mobile, structures (tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space exerts a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoor, where the creative decor can intensify the impression.
Celebrity branding
This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana. Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, Toyota and many more.
Consumer-generated advertising
This involves getting consumers to generate advertising through blogs, websites, wikis and forums, for some kind of payment.
Aerial advertising
Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display advertising media. Skywriting is a notable example.
Purpose of advertising[
Advertising is at the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The purpose of advertising is to convince customers that a company's services or products are the best, enhance the image of the company, point out and create a need for products or services, demonstrate new uses for established products, announce new products and programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages, draw customers to the business, and to hold existing
Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in and where they are, of mass messages (see propaganda).
Rise in new media[edit]


out more about a particular business or practice at any time, right from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.[54] crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements. User-generated ads are created by consumers as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, most often they are a result of brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the Crash the Super Bowl contest, allowing consumers to create their own Doritos commercial.[55] Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs.[55] Due to the success of the Doritos user-generated ads in the 2007 Super Bowl, Frito-Lays relaunched the competition for the 2009 and 2010 Super Bowl. The resulting ads were among the most-watched and most-liked Super Bowl ads. In fact, the winning ad that aired in the 2009 Super Bowl was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the top ad for the year while the winning ads that aired in the 2010 Super Bowl were found by Nielsen's BuzzMetrics to be the "most buzzed-about".[56][57]
This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey's, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper. Crowdsourced advertisements have gained popularity in part to its cost effective nature, high consumer engagement, and ability to generate word-of-mouth. However, it remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear.[58]
Global advertising[
Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company's speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel.[59]
Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how economies of scale are maximised. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.[60]
See also: Soft Power and International Tourism Advertising
Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as a vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions.
Diversification[
In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that "big global clients don't need big global agencies any more".[61] This is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world".[62]
New technology[edit]
The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow users to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from the sales of these sets.
To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor. Other strategies include integrating advertising with internet-connected EPGs, advertising on companion devices (like smartphones and tablets) during the show, and creating TV apps. Additionally, some like brands have opted for social television sponsorship.
Advertising education[]
Advertising education has become popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.[63] Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner established companies with students to create these campaigns.
Criticisms[
Main article: Criticism of advertising
While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs. Unsolicited commercial e-mail and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have become a major nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on internet service providers.[64] Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation.[65] In addition, advertising frequently uses psychological pressure (for example, appealing to feelings of inadequacy) on the intended consumer, which may be harmful. Many even feel that often, advertisements exploit the desires of a consumer, by making a particular product more appealing, by manipulating the consumer's needs and wants.
Regulation[
Main article: Advertising regulation
There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples are: the ban on television tobacco advertising imposed in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under 12 imposed by the Swedish government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the European Court of Justice, which had found that Sweden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries or via satellite. Greece's regulations are of a similar nature, "banning advertisements for children's toys between 7 am and 10 pm and a total ban on advertisement for war toys".[66]
In Europe and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Kaiser Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested fast food advertising that targets children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the United States.
In New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Canada, and many European countries, the advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK.
In the UK, most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. Currently, the display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offence. All of the major outdoor billboard companies in the UK have convictions of this nature.
In the US, many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm.[67] As long ago as the 1960s in the US there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside.[68] Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban[69] with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays.
Many advertisers employ a wide-variety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g. In France, printing English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English).[70] The advertisement of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms are subject to government regulation in many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is required by law in most countries to display warnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products. Linguistic variation is often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such requirements.
Advertising research[
Main article: Advertising research
Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns – pre-testing is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-market impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types.
Semiotics[]
Main article: Advertising research
Today's culture is made up of meanings between consumers and marketers. These meanings depict signs and symbols that are encoded in everyday objects.[71] Semiotics is the study of signs and how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within brand names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television advertisements. The purpose of semiotics is to study and interpret the message being conveyed in advertisements. Logos and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels known as the surface level and the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for their product. These signs can be images, words, fonts, colors, or slogan. The underlying level is made up of hidden meanings. The combination of images, words, colors, and slogan must be interpreted by the audience or consumer.[72] The "key to advertising analysis" is the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the object and the signified is the mental concept.[73] A product has a signifier and a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A television’s denotative meaning would be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the product’s deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a television would be that it is top of the line.[74]
Apple is an excellent example of using semiotics in their advertising campaign. Apple's commercials used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple's products.[75]
The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories. Certain characteristics of stumuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product is perceived as feminine or masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect attention and elaboration of the message (traditional or non-traditional gender role orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the message.[76]
There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective.[77] Objective claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For instance, the camera has auto focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design.[78] Males tend to respond better to objective marketing communications claims while females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims.[79]
In advertisements, men are represented as independent. They are shown in more occupations than women. Women are represented mainly as housewives and mothers. Men are more likely to be shown advertising cars or business products, while women advertise domestic products. Men are more likely to be shown outdoors or in business settings. Women are depicted in domestic settings. Men are more often portrayed as authorities. As far as ads go, with age men seem to gain wisdom and authority. On the other hand women seem to disappear with age. Voiceovers are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceovers are men (figures of up to 94% have been reported). There have been more female voiceovers in recent years but mainly for food, household products, and feminine care products.[80]
Gender effects in the processing of advertising[]
According to a 1977 study by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving problems, which could have an effect on how they interpret advertising.[81] According to this study, men prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message where females engage in more creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation.
More recently, research by Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to advertis
References]
Notes
1. Jump up ^ "DjVu Image Page Turner". Triggs.djvu.org. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
2. Jump up ^ ""advertize" at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
3. Jump up ^ ""advertize" at The Free Online Dictionary". Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
4. Jump up ^ "Latin Word Study Tool". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
5. ^ Jump up to: a b c Donley T. Studlar (2002) Tobacco Control: Comparative Politics in the United States and Canada p.55 quotation: "...froms. the early days advertising has been intimately intertwined with tobacco. The man who is sometimes considered the founder of modern advertising and Madison Avenue, Edward Bernays, created many of the major cigarette campaigns of the 1920s, including having women march down the street demanding the right to smoke."
6. ^ Jump up to: a b c Donald G. Gifford (2010) Suing the Tobacco and Lead Pigment Industries, p.15 quotation: "...during the early twentieth century, tobacco manufacturers virtually created the modern advertising and marketing industry as it is known today."
7. ^ Jump up to: a b c Stanton Glantz in Mad Men Season 3 Extra – Clearing the Air – The History of Cigarette Advertising, part 1, min 3:38 quotation: "...development of modern advertising. And it was really the tobacco industry, from the beginning, that was at the forefront of the development of modern, innovative, advertising techniques."
8. Jump up ^ "GroupM forecasts 2012 global ad spending to increase 6.4%". WPP. 2011-12-05. Retrieved 2014-04-06.
9. Jump up ^ Parekh, Rupal (July 12, 2012). "Not the 'Big Four' Holding Firms in Adland Anymore – Now It's the Big Five | Agency News – Advertising Age". Adage.com. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
10. Jump up ^ Bhatia (2000). Advertising in Rural India: Language, Marketing Communication, and Consumerism, 62+68
11. Jump up ^ Hong Liu, Chinese Business: Landscapes and Strategies (2013), p.15.
12. Jump up ^ He was first described as such in T F G Coates, 'Mr Thomas J Barratt, "The father of modern advertising"', Modern Business, September 1908, pp. 107–15.
13. ^ Jump up to: a b Matt Haig, Brand failures: the truth about the 100 biggest branding mistakes of all time, Kogan Page Publishers, 2005, pp. 219, 266.
14. Jump up ^ Nicholas Mirzoeff, The visual culture reader, Routledge, 2002, p. 510.
15. Jump up ^ "Obituary, Thomas J. Barratt Dead: Chairman of the Firm of A. & F. Pears an Advertising Genius". New York Times. New York Times. 1914-04-27. p. 11. Retrieved 2014-04-06.


فهرست
• معناشناسی

• تاریخچه
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o تبلیغات در دوران باستان
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o تبلیغات در قرن حاضر
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تبلیغات


هنر تجاری، تبلیغات کوکاکولا در سال‌های ۱۸۹۰
تبلیغات (به انگلیسی: Advertising)، (به فرانسوی: Publicité) تبلیغ ریشه درزندگی اجتماعی انسانها دارد عملی است که در آن فروشنده یا تولید کننده‌ای با انجام امری سعی می‌کند که خریدار بالقوه را از تولید این محصول آگاه کند.این عمل با روش‌های گوناگونی انجام می‌شود.
آگهی به مطالبی گفته می شود که از جانب فرد یا دستگاهی برای آگاه کردن عموم مردم تهیه و به روشی مناسب منتشر می گردد. آگهی ها می توانند چاپی و یا غیر چاپی باشند. همچنین از نظر مالکیت می توانند به دو گروه دولتی و غیر دولتی تقسیم گردند. آگهی انحصار وراثت، ابلاغیه، احضاریه، آگهی مزایده و آگهی استخدام نمونه هایی از آگهی های دولتی هستند [۱].
معناشناسی

اصطلاح تبلیغات ریشه در واژه‌های (کنگر گاتیو دی پرو پا گاندا فید) یا کنگره ترویج ایمان دارد که در سال ۱۶۲۲ کلیسای کاتولیک برپا نمود. این کنگره بخشی از اقدامات ضد اصلاح طلبی کلیسا بود مطابق تعریف لاسول در کتاب «فنون تبلیغات در جنگ جهانی» تبلیغات منحصراً به ششکنترل عقیده با نمادهای مهم نظیر گزارشها شایعات تصاویر و دیگر اشکال ارتباط جمعی می‌پردازد

تاریخچه

آنچه که امروز به عنوان تبلیغات نو و جدید می‌شناسیم، ریشه در اواخر سدهٔ نوزدهم و اوایل سدهٔ بیستم در کشور ایالات متحده دارد. اما به طور کلی برای تبلیغات اعم از سیاسی یا تجاری می‌توان سه دوره تاریخی قبل از انقلاب گوتنبرگ و اختراع و تکمیل ماشین چاپ در سال ۱۴۵۰ را در نظر گرفت
1. دوره علایم حجاری شده بر روی کاسه‌ها، کوزه‌های سفالی و...
2. نشانه‌ها و تبلیغ روی دیوارها و سنگ نبشته‌ها
3. جارچی‌های شهر
البته تمام فرهنگها وتمدنهای گذشته هر کدام به شیوۀ خود تبلیغات را داشته اند، به عنوان مثال راههای تبلیغ دین در ادیان مختلف بسیار زیرکانه است وپس از گذشت قرنها صیقل خورده وحرفه ای است، مثل آئین سخنوری وخطابه وهمچنین متون مذهبی که به عنوان ادعیه واحادیث متداول است.
تبلیغات در دوران باستان

از دوران ما قبل تاریخ، تصاویری بر روی دیواره غارهای قدیمی نقش بسته که مربوط به سازندگان اشیای ابتدائی است و به نوعی نمایش وتبلغ توانائی‌ها وکالاهای آنان بوده است.

تبلیغات در قرن حاضر

aالبرت لاسکر را عنوان پدر تبلیغات نوین معرفی می‌کنند لاسکر در دهه ۱۹۲۰ تبلیغات را اینگونه تعریف می‌کند (تبلیغات عبارت از فروشنده در پشت دستگاه چاپ) آنچه مابه عنوان تبلیغات نو و جدید می‌شناسیم ریشه در اواخر قرن نوزدهم و اوائل قرن بیستم در کشور ایالات متحده دارد زمان ظهور آژانسهای تبلیغاتی به صورت سازمان یافته و به وجود آمدن مجلات و کتابهای تبلیغاتی در سال ۱۹۳۰ مجله عصر تبلیغات گشایش یافت این مجله به صورت رنگی چاپ می‌شد.
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وقتی که صحبت از تبلیغات در قرن حاضر می‌شود، نمی‌توان نامی از تبلیغات اینترنتی نیاورد. تبلیغاتی که مزایای بسیاری در خود دارد: ارزان است، فراگیر است، ماندگار است، هوشمندانه‌است، شبانه روزی است، هر زمان که شما بخواهید، قابل تغییر است و... کارکرد این نوع تبلیغات به خصوص زمانی که شرکتها از لحاظ منابع مالی با مشکلات مواجه هستند کاملاً پر رنگ تر می‌شود. شاهد این امر بررسی رشد تبلیغات اینترنتی در بحران مالی کنونی (سال ۲۰۰۹) است.
تبلیغات پست مستقیم یک اسلحه واقعاً کارا جهت هدف گرفتن بخش خاصی از از بازار هدف است. شما می‌توانید کارت پستال، کاتالوگ، بروشور، خبرنامه و یا یک نامه ساده را برای مشتریان خود بفرستید. هدایایی درون پاکت قرار دهید که نشانگر اهمیت شما به مشتریان خود باشید.
این رسانه وسیله‌ای مناسب برای اطلاع رسانی در زمینه‌هایی مانند: فروشهای فوق العاده، تخفیفات فصلی، یادآوری اینکه شرکت مشتریان قبلی خود را از یاد نبرده‌است و شیوه‌ای مناسب جهت اطلاع رسانی بی واسطه و جذب مشتریان جدید و حفظ مشتریان کنونی است. مزایای این نوع تبلیغات:
• در سرویس پست مستقیم تبلیغات با ماندگاری بیشتری صورت می‌گیرد و اطلاعات زیادی را از این طریق به مشتریان می‌توان منتقل کرد
• در این نوع تبلیغات میتوان بازار هدف را شناسایی کرد و تنها برای این دسته از مشتریان تبلیغات کرد که باعث کاهش هزیته‌ها می‌شود.
• در این روش تبلیغات می‌توان از بانک اطلاعاتی مراکز پستی نیز استفاده کرد در سازمان پست ایران واحدی بنام پست مستقیم وجود دارد
منابع
1. پرش به بالا ↑ دائرةالمعارف کتابداری و اطلاع رسانی. سرویراستار عباس حری. کتابخانه ملی جمهموری اسلامی ایران،
• ۰

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